
Class ..."Pic U VI. 
Book._ i £ !1.2a 
right N° ^ 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



A SCHOOL MANUAL 



OF 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



FOR ADVANCED GRAMMAR GRADES, AND FOR 
HIGH SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, ETC. 



By WILLIAM SWINTON. 

AUTHOR OF "SWINTON'S LANGUAGE SERIES," ETC. 




NEW YORK • : • CINCINNATI - 1 • CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 







LIBRARY of OONGRESS 
I wo Copies deceive u 

JUL 25 1905 

A Oopyn*ni entry 
^LASb CU AAC Nu 
COPY tt. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by 

Harper & Brothers, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 

Copyright, 1905, by Jean Swinton. 



PREFACE. 



This little book is not an addition to the already large number 
of rhetorics and other works on the theory and mysteries of style. 
It is strictly a manual for school-work, and has been made with 
special reference to the rational remodelling recently accomplished, 
or now in the way of being accomplished, in the Courses of Study 
in our public schools — a remodelling in which language -training 
for the first time receives the attention that is its due. The writer 
trusts that inquiring teachers will find it in harmony witji their 
views and aims. 

In the plan here adopted, composition is begun with the very 
commencement of the study, and is carried on pari passu with the 
development of rules and principles. It is a matter of common 
experience that children's power of producing, in an empirical way, 
is much in advance of their knowledge of the rationale of writing ; 
hence, in the present work, pupils are not kept back from the im- 
proving exercise of actual composition until they have mastered the 
complicated details of rhetorical theory. It should be added, how- 
ever, that the demands made on the scholar will not be found be- 
yond his powers. He is provided with the material to work on, 
and his attention is limited to the process of building this material 
into shape — the author's conviction being that training in the art 
of expression is as much as can wisely be aimed at in school com- 
position. Pupils must first be taught how to write at all, before 
they can be shown how to write well — a maxim that has never been 
out of mind in the making of this book. 



\ y PREFACE. 






In Chapters I.-IV. the scholar is initiated into the construction 
and combination of sentences — under which head a great variety 
of practical exercises will be found. 

In Chapter V. it is sought to extend his resources of expression 
by accustoming him to vary both the structure and the phraseology 
of sentences. 

In Chapter VI. what can advantageously be taught to boys and 
girls respecting style is presented in a form which the author 
hopes will be found both fresh and fruitful. 

Chapter VII. deals with the composition of Themes and Essays, 
on models adapted to a fair estimate of the pupil's capacity. 

Chapter VIII. presents a summary of Prosody and Versification. 

It has seemed to the writer that there is room for a school 
manual of prose composition of medium size, arranged on a simple 
and natural plan, and designed, not to teach the theory of style and 
criticism, but to give school - children between the ages of twelve 
and sixteen a fair mastery of the art of writing good English, for 
the ordinary uses of life. Such he has endeavored to make the 
present book. 

The acknowledgments of the author are due to the following 
works : English Prose Composition, by James Currie ; Cornwall's 
Young Composer ; DalgleisKs English Composition ; Armstrong's 
English Composition. 

William Swinton. 



NOTE TO REVISED EDITION. 

The need for a new set of electrotype plates arising, the author 
has availed himself of the opportunity to make a thorough revision 
of this work, and to add the chapter (VIII.) on Prosody and Versi- 
fication. 

W.S. 

September, 1877. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGB 

INTRODUCTION 1 

CHAPTEK 

I. The Simple Sentence 2 

I. Nature of the Simple Sentence 2 

II. Punctuation op the Simple Sentence 5 

III. Synthesis of the Simple Sentence 7 

II. The Complex Sentence 16 

I. Nature of the Complex Sentence 16 

II. Punctuation of the Complex Sentence 19 

III. Synthesis of the Complex Sentence 20 

III. The Compound Sentence 27 

I. Nature of the Compound Sentence 27 

II. Contracted Compound Sentences 29 

III. Punctuation of Compound Sentences 30 

IV. Synthesis of Compound Sentences — , 31 

IV. Conversion and Combination of Sentences 35 

I. Expansion of Sentences 35 

II. Contraction of Sentences 36 

III. Combination of Sentences 37 

V. Variety of Expression 41 

I. Variation in Arrangement and Structure 41 

II. Variation of Phraseology 49 

VI. On Style 57 

I. Choice of Words 57 

II. Construction 63 

III. Figures of Language "* 

VII. Themes and Essays . . .\ • 7£> 

I. Structure of Paragraphs 75 

II. Themes 77 

III. Essays 81 

VIII. Prosody and Versification »•••• 85 



APPENDIX 97 

A. Summary of Punctuation 97 

B. Explanation of Terms 102 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



INTRODUCTION. 

1, Composition (that is, literary composition) is the art 
of expressing thought by means of language. 

I. The art of composition is regulated by the principles of rhetoric, 
or the science of the expression of thought. " Rhetoric," says 
Bain, "discusses the means whereby language, spoken or written, 
may be rendered effective." 

II. Rhetoric cannot supply us with thoughts. These must origin 
nate in the mind itself, by the operation, conscious or uncon- 
scious, of the intellectual faculties. But when we have thoughts 
which we wish to put forth, rhetorical art instructs us in the 
best method of expressing and arranging them — in other words, 
of giving them literary form. 

\ 

2. Sentence, Paragraph, Discourse,— The expression of 

a single complete thought is a sentence. 

The expression of a connected series of thoughts (or " train 
of thought ") is effected by means of a series of sentences, 
forming a paragraph. 

The development of a whole subject constitutes discourse, 
written or spoken, in one or other of its manifold forms. 

The most general division of discourse in its largest sense gives two 
forms of composition : I. Composition in prose. II. Compo- 
sition in verse. Prose composition assumes a great variety 



2 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

of forms — from the fugitive newspaper article to the elaborate 
scientific or historical treatise; so, also, verse ranges from the 
song to the epic. 

3. The forms of discourse which will be considered in 
this book are those of, (1) the composition; (2) the theme; 
and (3) the essay. 



In beginning the work of composition - writing the fol- 
lowing points are to be noted : 

Terminal Marks.— 1. Use a period (.) at the end of a declarative 
or an imperative sentence ; a point of interrogation (?) at the 
end of an interrogative sentence ; and a point of exclamation 
(!) at the end of an an exclamative sentence. 

2. A period is used after every abbreviation : as, " G. Washing- 
ton;" "C. O.D." 

3. A period is used after a title or heading, and after an address 
or a signature : as, " Milton's Paradise Lost." " Chapter III." 
" A. T. Stewart, Broadway, New York." 

Capitals. — A capital letter should begin — 

1. The first word of every sentence. 

2. The first word of every line of poetry. 

8. The first word of every direct quotation. 

4. All proper nouns and proper adjectives. 

5. Names of things personified. 

6. Names of the days of the week, and of the months of the year; 
but not of the seasons. 

7. All words used as titles, or particular names. 

8. Names of the Supreme Being. 

9. The pronoun J, the interjection 0, and single letters forming 
abbreviations should be capitals. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 3 

CHAPTER I. 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

L Nature of the Simple Sentence. 

4. A simple sentence consists of one independent prop- 
osition. 

It is limited to a single predication, but may contain an 
indefinite number of words and phrases. 

A simple sentence can consist only of words and phrases ; because, 
if another clause or member is introduced, the sentence becomes 
either complex or compound. 
Each of the following sentences is simple — 



1. Birds 

2. Some birds 

3. Some birds of prey 

4. Some birds of prey, having 

secured their victim, 



fly swiftly, 
fly very swiftly. 

fly with it very swiftly to their 
nests. 

I. The first example illustrates the simplest form of the simple 
sentence. It consists of the subject and predicate, without ad- 
juncts. In the three sentences following, the subject and the 
predicate are enlarged, or modified, by the gradual addition of 
certain particulars. The first sentence is a sort of skeleton ; in 
the succeeding sentences this becomes clothed with flesh. 

II. Sentence 4 may be expressed thus : 

Some birds of prey, when they have secured their victim, fly with it very 
swiftly to their nests. 

Since a simple sentence can contain but one subject and one predi 
cate, it is plain that this cannot be a simple sentence, for the rea- 
son that it contains two subjects and two predicates. The first 
subject is " birds ;" its predicate is "fly." The second subject is 
" they ;" its predicate is " have secured." It is a complex sen- 
tence. 

C Some birds of prey fly with it (their vic- 

Principal Statement \ x . . .{/. ' . 

/ tim) very swiftly to their nests. 

Subordinate Statement When they have secured their victim. 

ConnectiYe , When. 



4: ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

III. Sentence 4 may also be transformed into the following- 
Some birds of prey secure their victim, and then fly with it very swiftly to 
their nests. 

In this form the sentence cannot be simple, because it contains 
more than one subject and one predicate. And it cannot be 
complex, because each of the members is independent. It is 
therefore a compound sentence. 



EXERCISE 1. 
A. 

Supply appropriate subjects, so as to make complete sim- 
ple sentences : thus — 

is the organ of sight. The eye is the organ of sight. 

1 is the organ of sight. 

2 embalmed the bodies of their dead. 

3 supplies us with tea. 

4 is the most useful metal. 

5 indicates the approach of winter. 

6 is called a limited monarchy. 

7 preached a fine sermon. 

8. were patriots. 

B. 

Supply appropriate predicates, so as to make complete 
simple sentences : thus — 

General Wolfe General Wolfe fell, gallantly fighting, on the Plains of 

Abraham. 

1. General Wolfe 

2. Harnessed to a sledge, the reindeer 

3. The British Parliament 

4. The great circle dividing the earth into the Northern and Southern 

hemispheres 

5. Covered with wounds, the gallant soldier 

6. On Christmas-eve of the year 1775, Washington, having resolved to at' 

tack the British 

7. The art of printing 

& The vapor-laden clouds, striking high mountain-peaks 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 



II. Punctuation of the Simple Sentence. 

5. Punctuation is the art of indicating, by means of 
points, which elements of a sentence are to be conjoined, 
and which separated, in meaning. 

6. The points made use of for this purpose are: 

The period 

The comma > 

The semicolon ; 

The colon : 

The dash — 

7. The occasional points — the use of which is sufficiently 
indicated by their names — are : 

The mark of interrogation ? 

The mark of exclamation ! 

Quotation-marks . " " 

The parenthesis ( ) 

8. General Eule. — In simple sentences the only points 
used are the terminal marks and the comma. 

The following are the principal rules for punctuating 
simple sentences : 

1. A simple sentence in which the parts are arranged in their natural 
order usually requires no comma: as— 

1. His garden is gay with flowers. 

2. But I must introduce my readers to the inside of a New England 

cottage. 

2. Co-ordinate words are separated by commas, except when they are 
only two in number and joined by a conjunction: as— 

1. This calm, cool, resolute man presented a noble example of daring. 

2. This cool and resolute man presented, etc. 



6 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

3. An appositionai expression is generally set off by a comma; or, 
if parenthetical, by two commas : as— 

1. At Zama the Romans defeated Hannibal, perhaps the greatest general 

of antiquity. 

2. Hannibal, perhaps the greatest general of antiquity, was defeated by 

the Romans at Zama. 

4. A participial phrase is set off by a comma; or, if parenthetical, 
by two : as — 

1. Having completed their arrangements for the work of the morrow, 

they retired to snatch a few hours' repose. 

2. The Indian monarch, stunned and bewildered, saw his faithful subjects 

falling around him. 

But if the phrase is restrictive, no comma is required : as— 

A city set on a hill cannot be hid. 

5. Adverbial phrases on which stress is laid, either by transposi- 
tion or otherwise, and adverbs having the force of phrases (however, 
indeed, etc.), are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas: 
as— 

1. In spite of all difficulties, they resolved to make the attempt. 

2. They resolved, in spite of all difficulties, to make the attempt. 

3. In truth, I am wearied by his importunities. I am, in truth, wearied 

by his importunities. 

4. The signal being given, the fleet weighed anchor. 

6. Adverbs and adverbial phrases occurring in their natural place in 
a sentence, and without stress being laid on them, are not set off 
by commas : as— 

1. The judge therefore ordered his release. 

2. They proceeded with all due caution to examine the premises. 

7. A succession of co-ordinate phrases is separated by commas : as— 

At daybreak, the combined fleets were distinctly seen from the Vic- 
tory's deck, formed in a close line of battle ahead, about twelve 
miles to leeward, and standing to the south. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 



8. The nominative independent (noun of address) is set off by a 
comma or by commas : as— 

1. My son, forget not my law. 

2. Tell me, my friend, all the circumstances. 



EXERCISE 2. 

Punctuate the following simple sentences : 

1 Franklin was blessed with a sound understanding an intrepid spirit a 
benevolent heart. 

2. Mr. Speaker I rise to move the second reading of this bill. 

3. Goldsmith the author of the "Deserted Village" wrote with perfect 

elegance and beauty. 

4. I returned slowly home my head a little fatigued but my heart content. 

5. In 1799 having previously returned to Mount Vernon Washington was 

gathered to his fathers. 

6. Nevertheless strange stories got abroad. 

7. Our dear friend the general in his last letter mortified me not a little. 

8. He was reserved and proud haughty and ambitious. 

9. She was moreover full of truth kindness and good-nature. 

10. In carrying a barometer from the level of the Thames to the top of St. 

Paul's Church in London the mercury falls about half an inch mark- 
ing an ascent of about five hundred feet. 

11. Our house is beautifully situated about three miles from town close by 

the road. 



III. Synthesis of Simple Sentences. 

9. Synthesis is the process of combining separate state- 
ments into a single sentence. The following exemplifies the 
method : 

(1.) 

1. Shakspeare was born at Stratford-on-Avon. 

2. Shakspeare was a dramatist. 

3. He was an English dramatist. 
Separate I 4 He wag a t dramat j st 

Statements. K TT , . ., ^ KaA 

5. He was born in the year 1564. 

6. He was born during the reign of Queen Eliz« 
abeth, 



8 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

Combined. — In the year 1564, during the reign of Queen Eliz- 
abeth, Shakspeare, a great English dramatist, was born at 
Stratford-on-Avon. 

Explanation. — It will be noticed that in the combined sentence 

all the elements contained in each of the separate statements 

are woven together. 
Statement 1 is the principal proposition, or skeleton sentence — 

" Shakspeare was born at Stratford-on-Avon." 
Statement 2 contributes a single word — the term "dramatist." 

It is placed in juxtaposition with the subject, " Shakspeare," 

and in apposition with it. 
Statement 3 furnishes also a single word, " English," joined as a 

modifier to "dramatist/' 
Statement 4 adds the adjunct " great." 
Statement 5 appears in the form of an adverbial phrase, "in the 

year 1564," which serves as a modifier of the predicate "was 

born." 
Statement 6 is condensed into another adverbial phrase — "during 

the reign of Queen Elizabeth." 

(2.) 
' There lay floating on the ocean an immense ir- 
regular mass. 
This mass was several miles off. 
Its top and points were covered with snow. 
, Its centre was of a deep indigo color. 



Separate 
Statements. 



Combined. — Several miles off, there lay floating on the ocean an 
immense irregular mass, its top and points covered with snow, 
and its centre of a deep indigo color. 

10. Analysis (that is, rhetorical analysis) is the separation 
of a simple sentence into the different statements implied 
in it. It is the opposite of synthesis. The following ex- 
emplifies the method : 

Logwood, one of the most common dyestuffs, is the substance of a tree 
found at Campeachy Bay and in the West Indies. 



Analysis. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 9 

1. Logwood is the substance of a tree. 

2. Logwood is one of the most common dyestuffs. 

3. The tree is found at Campeachy Bay. 

4. The tree is found in the West Indies. 



EXERCISE 3. 

A. 

Combine the following statements into simple sentences : 

1. The electric telegraph has greatly facilitated business. 

It has done so by bringing distant parts of the world into instant com* 

munication. 
The electric telegraph was invented by Professor Morse. 
Professor Morse was an American. 

2. The next morning the battle began in terrible earnest. 
The next morning was the 24th of June. 

The battle began at daybreak. 

8. Columbus returned to Spain in 1493. 

He had spent some months in exploring the delightful regions. 

These regions had long been dreamed of by many. 

These regions were now first thrown open to European eyes. 

4. I received a letter. 

It was a cheerful letter. 

It was a hopeful letter. 

It was full of lively descriptions of camp life. 

It was full of lively descriptions of marches. 

It was full of lively descriptions of battles. 

5. Alexander saw himself lord of all Western Asia. 
He saw himself such at the age of twenty-five. 
He had defeated the Persians. 

They were defeated in the great battles of Issus, Granicus, and Arbela. 

6. The Romans heard of the fertile island called Britain. 

The Romans were then the most powerful people in the world. 
The Romans were then the most civilized people in the world. 
They had conquered Gaul, or France. 
Britain lay on the other side of the sea to the northwest. 

7. We diverged towards the prairie. 
We left the line of march. 

We traversed a small valley. 



10 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

8 Peter III. reigned but a few months. 

Peter was deposed by a conspiracy of Russian nobles. 
This conspiracy was headed by his own wife Catherine. 
Catherine was a German by birth. 
Catherine was a woman of bold and unscrupulous character. 



NOTE. 



Pupils in beginning the work of synthesis are liable to go beyond 
the limits of the simple sentence, and construct complex or compound 
sentences. Thus a pupil, in combining the statements of group 1, in 
the exercise above, constructed the following sentence: 

The electric telegraph, which was invented by Professor Morse, an Ameri- 
can, has greatly facilitated business, by bringing distant parts of the 
world into instant communication. 

This is not a simple sentence, because it has two finite verbs — " was 
invented " and " has facilitated." The words " which was invented by 
Professor Morse, an American" form a clause, the connective being the 
relative pronoun "which," and the whole is a complex sentence. The 
manner of converting it into a simple sentence is to reduce the clause 
to a phrase. This is done by omitting the connective and changing 
the finite verb into a participle, thus: 

Clause: Which was invented by Professor Morse. 
Phrase : Invented by Professor Morse. 

Making this change, we have the following simple sentence : 

The electric telegraph, invented by Professor Morse, an American, has 
greatly facilitated business, by bringing distant parts of the world into 
instant communication. 

B. 

Analyze the following simple sentences : 

1. The animal kingdom is divided into four great classes, called sub-king- 

doms. 

2. The silkworm's web is an oval ball, called a cocoon, consisting of a 

single thread wound round and round. 

3. Gesler, to try the temper of the Swiss, set up the ducal hat of Austria 

on a pole in the market-place of Altdorf. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. \\ 

11. Position of Phrases. — When a simple sentence con- 
tains modifying phrases, a variety of changes in the arrange- 
ment of its parts may be made. Thus the sentence— 

The blooming maiden went out early in the morning, with light step ; 
into the garden — 

may be arranged in several ways : as — 

1. Early in the morning the blooming maiden went out, with light 
step, into the garden. 

2. "With light step the blooming maiden went out into the garden 
early in the morning. 

3. The blooming maiden went out; with light step, into the garden 
early in the morning. 

4. The blooming maiden, with light step, went out into the garden 
early in the morning. 

5. The blooming maiden went out into the garden early in the 
morning with light step. 

6. Out into the garden, with light step, went the blooming maiden 
early in the morning! 

This by no means exhausts the number of changes that may be made in the 
arrangement. 

12. The particular place that a phrase should occupy 
will generally depend on the sense intended ; hence phrases 
should usually be placed beside the parts of the sentence they 
are designed to modify^ But adverbial phrases may be 
placed in almost any part of the sentence, and taste is to 
be exercised in the selection of the best place. 

13. Direction. — When a sentence contains a number of 
phrases, they should not be grouped together in any one part— as 
at the beginning or end, or in the middle— but distributed in such 
a way that the sentence shall be agreeable to the ear. 

Illustrations. — 1. We were becalmed for two weeks in the Pacific 
in a ship almost destitute of provisions. 

The three phrases in this sentence are placed together after the verb, 



12 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 






and the effect is infelicitous. By using the adverbial phrase " for two 
weeks" to introduce the sentence, the statement is much more neatly 
expressed. Thus : 

For two weeks, we were becalmed in the Pacific, in a ship almost desti« 
tute of provisions ; or, We were, for two weeks, becalmed, etc. 

2. Columbus returned to Spain in 1493, having spent some montha 
in exploring the delightful regions long dreamed of by many, 
and now first thrown open to European eyes. 

We might vary the structure thus : 

In 1493, Columbus returned to Spain, having spent, etc. ; or, 
Columbus, in 1493, returned to Spain, having spent, etc.; or, 
Columbus, having spent some months in exploring the delightful 

regions long dreamed of by many, but now first thrown open to 

European eyes, returned to Spain in 1493. 

14. Tests. — When the several varieties of structure have 
been made, the following tests may be applied : 

Which construction is clearest ? 

Which is neatest ? 

Which is most harmonious t 



EXERCISE 4. 
A. 

Combine the following groups of statements each into 
simple sentences. Try the sentence in various orders, and 
tell which construction you prefer, and why. 

1. The president called a meeting. 
It was a meeting of his cabinet. 
The meeting was called suddenly. 
It was called late at night. 

It was at the suggestion of Adams it was called. 

The purpose of its calling was to deliberate on the relations with 
France. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 13 

8. The Romans defeated Hannibal. 

He was perhaps the greatest general of antiquity. 
It was at Zama they defeated him. 

3. I went on a vacation tiip to the country, 
It was at the close of last term I went. 

I was tired out with hard study. 

4. We came to a spacious mansion of freestone. 
The mansion was built in the Grecian style. 
We did so after riding a short distance. 

5. A fine lawn sloped away from the mansion. 
This lawn was studded with clumps of trees. 

These clumps were so disposed as to break a soft, fertile country into a 
variety of landscapes. 

6. Glue is made of the refuse of horses' hoofs, parings of hides, and other 

similar materials. 
These are boiled down to a thick jelly. 
The thick jelly is repeatedly strained. 
This is done so as to free it from all impurities. 

7. In China there are a great many tea-farms. 
These are generally of small extent. 
They are situated in the upper valleys. 

They are situated on the sloping sides of the hills. 

8. Heavy articles were generally conveyed from place to place by stage- 

wagons. 
They were thus conveyed on the best highways. 
This was the case in the time of Charles the Second. 

9. Bruce sent two commanders. 

The war between the English and Scotch still lasted. 

He sent the good Lord James Douglas. 

He also sent Thomas Randolph, Earl of Moray. 

These men were great commanders. 

They were to lay waste the counties of Northumberland and Durham, 

They were to distress the English. 

10. Sugar is a sweet crystallized substance. 

It is obtained from the juice of the sugar-cane. 

The sugar-cane is a reed-like plant, growing in most hot climates. 

It is supposed to be originally a native of the East. 

11. Alexander became a man. 
He became a strong man. 
He became an effectual man. 

He became a man able to take care of himself and of his kingdom toa 
He became all this in due time. 



14 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

12. Coral is a secretion from the body of an animaL 
This animal is very low in the scale of creation. 
It is called a polyp. 

13. Goldsmith was vain. 
He was sensual. 

He was frivolous. 

He was profuse. 

He was improvident. 

All this he was according to Macaulay, 

14. The clustered spires of Frederick stand. 

They stand up from the meadows rich with corn. 
They stand clear in the cool September morn. 
Frederick is green-walled by the hills of Maryland. 

B. 

Transpose the phrases in the following sentences without 
altering the signification : 

1. That morning he had laid his books as usual on his desk in the school- 

room. 

2. At the dawn of day, she ascended the hill with a merry heart, in com- 

pany with her brother. 

3. Swallows in the autumn migrate into warmer climates. 

4. He reads every morning after breakfast regularly ten pages of Cicero. 

5. What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the human soul. 



Practical Exercises in Composing. 

Note. — It is intended that pupils shall begin the actual work of writing 
from the very outset, and that practice shall be carried on step by step with 
theory. 

A« 

Write a short composition from the following outline. 

Subject, — " The Camel." Underline the simple sentences. 

Where found Dry countries of Asia and Africa. 

Description Size, hump, color, coat, hoof 

Outline.. > Habits Its food, drink, docility, etc. 

Uses For travelling — caravans — milk. 

How adapted to desert countries. 

B. 

Write a composition of not less than ten sentences on the 
subject of " Trees." 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 15 

1. State the division of trees into forest and fruit trees, and 
tell the difference between these two kinds. 

2. Name the various kinds of forest-trees growing in your 
part of the country. 

3. Name the various kinds of fruit-trees cultivated in your 
Oulliiip.. «{ part of the country. 

4. What is a forest ? an orchard ? 

5. What is lumber ? timber ? 

6. Tell the various uses of wood. 

7. Mention important trees in different parts of the world, 
and state what people obtain from them. 

C. 

Write a composition from the following outline : 

MY NATIVE TOWN. 

1. Where it is. — In what country and state ; on what river, or 
near what noted natural object : ocean, lake, river, mountain, 
etc. Is it a great city ? If not, how far, and in what direction, 
is it from a large city ? 

2. Size. — Number of inhabitants. — Is it increasing in size, or sta- 
tionary ? Causes of either ? 

3. Connections with other Places. — Steamers. — Railroads. 
How long have the railroads been built ? What new lines are 
building ? 

4. Streets. — Which are the principal ones? Name and locate 
the public buildings : colleges, schools, churches, banks, etc. 

5. Occupations of the Inhabitants. — What leadiug industry, if 
any, is pursued ? How do most of the people gain a livelihood. 

6. Surrounding Scenery. — Description of fine views: forest, 
mountain, river. 

|3iP When the compositions are written, the pupils should exchange 
papers for criticism, asking the following questions: 

1. Does each sentence begin with a capital and end with a period! 

2. Are there any errors of spelling ? 

3. Are there any errors of grammar? 

4. Can any improvements be made in arrangement, expression, etc. ! 



Ig ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



CHAPTER IL 

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 
I. Nature of the Complex Sentence. 

15. A complex sentence consists of one independent (or 
principal) proposition and one or more clauses. 

A clause is a dependent, or subordinate, proposition, introduced 
by a connective. 

16. There are three kinds of clauses: I. The adjec- 
tive clause ; II. The adverbial clause ; III. The sub- 
stantive CLAUSE. 

17. An adjective clause is a clause equivalent to an ad- 
jective. It is generally joined to the principal statement by 
a relative pronoun or by a conjunctive adverb, as where, 
when, why : thus — 

1. The poet who wrote " Paradise Lost" sold it for five pounds. 

11 Who wrote Paradise Lost" is an adjective clause, connected with the prin- 
cipal statement, " the poet sold it for five pounds," by means of the relative 
" who." The clause modifies the subject " poet." 

2. De Soto discovered a great river, which the Indians named Mesa- 



" Which the Indians named," etc., is an adjective clause, introduced by 
u which," and modifying the object " river." 

3. She is far from the land where her young hero sleeps. 

" Where her young hero sleeps " is an adjective clause, introduced by the 
relative adverb " where," and modifying the noun u land." 

4. Avenge, Lord, thy slaughtered saints, whose hones 
Lie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold ; 

Even them who Tcept thy truth of old. 

"Whose bones," etc., is an adjective clause, modifying the noun " saints." 
"Who kept," etc.," is an adjective clause, modifying the pronoun "thenou** 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 17 

18, An adverbial clause is a clause equivalent to an ad- 
verb. It limits a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, and de- 
notes the various circumstances of place, time, cause, degree, 
manner, consequence, etc. It is joined to the principal 
statement by a subordinate conjunction, or by a conjunctive 
adverb. 

[For a list of clause-connectives, see English Grammar, p. 224.] 

1. When Columbus had finished speaking, the sovereigns sank upon 

their knees. 

"When Columbus," etc., is an adverbial clause of time, introduced by the 
conjunctive adverb "when," and modifying the principal predicate, u sank on 
their knees.' ' 

2. If you wish to be well, you must live temperately. 

"If you wish," etc., is an adverbial clause (condition), introduced by the 
subordinate conjunction "if." 

3. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

"Where angels," etc., is an adverbial clause (place), introduced by the rela- 
tive adverb " where." 

4. The ostrich is unable to fly, because it has not wings in proportion 

to its body. 

"Because it has," etc., is an adverbial clause (reason), introduced by the 
subordinate conjunction "because." 

5. A bird flies swifter than a horse can run. 

"Than a horse," etc., is aiKadverbial clause (comparison), introduced by 
the subordinate conjunction "tnan." 

19. A substantive clause is a clause equivalent to a 
noun. It may be the subject or object of a complex sen- 
tence, and is generally introduced by the interrogative pro- 
nouns who or what , by a conjunctive adverb, or by a subor- 
dinate conjunction : thus — 

1. When letters first came into use is uncertain — [noun clause, sub- 
ject of " is"]. 

2. Socrates proved that virtue is its own reward — [noun clause, ob- 
ject of " proved "]. 



18 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

3. " Tell me not in mournful numbers 
Life is hit an empty dream " — ■ 
[noun clause, the introductory conjunction that being under 
stood: object of "tell"]. 



EXERCISE 5. 
A. 

Complete the following complex sentences by supplying 
adjective clauses : 

1. Chemistry is the science 

2. The whale is the largest of all the animals 

3. The reason is because the earth turns on its axis. 

4. We saw the spot 

5. The soul is dead 

6. The day will come 

B. 

Complete the following complex sentences by supplying 
adverbial clauses : 

1. We must gain a character for truthfulness and diligence if 

2. The pursuit did not cease till 

3. The example of one she loved had more influence with her than 

4. Though the Laplanders keep themselves warm in their snow 

huts. 

5. The ground is never frozen in Palestine, as 

6 (time) Washington retired to Mount Vernon. 

7. The camel is called the " ship of the desert," (cause) ......... 

8 an eclipse is produced. 

c. 

Complete the following complex sentences by supplying 
substantive clauses : 

1. It is very amusing to watch the spider and see 

2. Every child knows 

3. We cannot tell 

4. Look at the elephant : did you ever wonder ? 

5 has long been accepted as one of the fundamental truths of as 

tronomy. 
(x As was foreseen, the judge decided 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 19 

II. Punctuation of the Complex Sentence. 

20, General Eule, — The rules for punctuating simple 
sentences apply to the main divisions of a complex sen- 
tence, that is, to the principal member and to the subor- 
dinate clause or clauses. 

21. The following are the principal special rules for 
punctuating complex sentences: 

1. A short and closely dependent clause is not separated from the 
principal proposition : as— 

1. Be ready when I give the signal. 

2. It is a well-known fact that the earth, is nearly round. 

2. Adverbial clauses, especially when they introduce a proposition, 
are generally set off by the comma : as— 

1. While the world lasts, fashion will continue to lead it by the nose. 

2. As my heart was entirely subdued by the captivating strains I had 

heard, I fell down at his feet. 

3. Adjective clauses are set off from their principals by commas, 
except when they are restrictive: as— 

1. Franklin, who became a great statesman and philosopher, w T as in youth 

a poor printer's boy. 

2. The friar pointed to the book that he held, as his authority. 

4. Parenthetical clauses are set off by commas : as— 
The project, it is certain, will succeed. 

5. When the main divisions are long, and the parts are set off by 
commas, the semicolon may be used to separate the main divisions: as— 

When snow accumulates on the ground in winter, it is useful in keeping 
the earth at a moderate degree of cold ; for, where the snow lies, the 
temperature of the ground beneath seldom falls below the freezing- 
point. 



20 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

6. A formal quotation is enclosed in quotation-marks, and preceded 
by a colon : as— 

His defence is : " To be robbed, violated, oppressed, is their privilege." 

7. When the quotation forms a part of the narrative, it may be pre- 
ceded by a comma : as— 

To a tribune who insulted him, he replied, " I am still your emperor/' 



EXERCISE 6. 

Punctuate the following complex sentences: 

1. As we were the first that came into the house so we were the last that 

went out of it being resolved to have a clear passage for our old friend 
whom we did not care to venture among the jostling of the crowd. 

2. Thousands whom indolence has sunk into contemptible obscurity might 

have attained the highest distinctions if idleness had not frustrated 
the effect of all their powers. 

3. Forbes in his Oriental Memoirs when speaking of the age of such trees 

states that he smoked his hookah under the very banyan beneath 
which part of Alexander's cavalry took shelter. 

4. The horse tired with his journey was led into the stable. 

5. Though deep yet clear though gentle yet not dull 
Strong without rage without o'erflowing full. 



III. Synthesis of Complex Sentences. 

22. Two or more statements may be united into one 
complex sentence, by making one statement the leading, 
or principal, proposition, and the other statement, or state 
ments, dependent upon it : thus — 

(1.) 
1. Coffee was unknown in this country two cen- 



r l. uonee was i 
Separate turies ag0 . 

Statements. L Tl . 

I 2. It is now in 



2. It is now in general use as a beverage. 

Combined. — Coffee, which is now in general use as a beverage, was 
unknown in this country two centuries ago. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 21 

The sentence might have been put together in this way : " Coffee 
was unknown in this country two centuries ago, but it is now in 
general use as a beverage." This is a perfectly proper sentence, but it 
is compound, not complex. It is compound because it contains two 
independent propositions. 

(2.) 

f Along the La Plata are extensive plains. 
I They are covered with grass. 
separate ! rpj iese pi ams are called pampas. 

Great herds of cattle roam over these pampas. 
[ Great herds of horses roam over them. 

Combined. — Along the La Plata are extensive grass-covered plains 
called pampas, over which roam vast herds of cattle and horses. 

23, The following exemplifies the rhetorical analysis of 
a complex sentence : 

The elephant, which in size and strength surpasses all other land 
animals, is a native both of Asia and Africa. 

r 1. The elephant surpasses all other land animals in size. 

2. The elephant surpasses all other land animals in strength. 

3. The elephant is a native of Asia. 

4. The elephant is a native of Africa. 



Analysis . . 



24. Variety of Arrangement, — Variety in the arrange- 
ment of complex sentences is obtained in the same manner 
as in simple sentences (by changing the position of phrases), 
and also by changing the position of clauses. 

Illustration. — An old clock that had stood for fifty years in a 
farmer's kitchen without giving its owner any cause of com- 
plaint, early one summer morning, before the family was stirring, 
suddenly stopped. 

This may be varied thus : 

1. An old clock that had stood for fifty years in a farmer's kitch- 
en without giving its owner any cause of complaint, suddenly 
stopped early one summer morning before the family was stir- 
ring. 



22 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

2. Early one summer morning, before the family was stirring, an 
old clock that had stood for fifty years in a farmer's kitchen 
without giving its owner any cause of complaint, suddenly 
stopped. 

25. Directions. — In combining a number of given ele- 
ments into a complex sentence, the pupil may be guided 
by the following considerations: 

I. Consider carefully the nature of the assertion in each of the 
constituent elements (statements), with the view of determining 
its connection with the main statement, which will always come 
first 
II. A clause should be placed beside the statement containing the 
word which it modifies, or with which it has grammatical rela- 
tion. 
III. An adjective clause follows the noun which it modifies; an ad- 
verbial clause generally follows the word which it modifies; 
but a clause denoting place, time, cause, condition, concession, 
may precede it. 






EXERCISE 7. 
A. 

Combine each group of statements into one complex sen- 
tence. 

Note. — It is not necessary that all the statements be turned into 
clauses ; some of them may, with greater clearness, be rendered in the 
complex sentence as phrases. 

1. The Spaniards were surrounded by many of the natives. 

The Spaniards were thus employed. [Clause of time, introduced by 

while, and introducing the sentence.] 
The natives gazed with silent admiration upon their actions. [Adjective 

clause.] 
They could not comprehend these actions. [Adjective clause, adjunct 

to "actions."] 
They did not foresee the consequences of these actions. [Adjective 

clause, adjunct to "actions," connected by "and" to preceding clause. 1 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 23 

2. Alexandria is situated on the shores of the Mediterranean. 

It was one of the most celebrated cities of antiquity. [Adjective clause, 

adjunct to "Alexandria."] 
It was formerly the residence of the kings of Egypt. [Adjective clause, 

adjunct to "Alexandria."] 

8. In the Olympic games, the only reward was a wreath composed of wild 

olives. 
The Olympic games were regarded as the most honorable. [Adjective 

clause, adjunct to "games."] 
They were so regarded, because sacred to Jupiter. [Phrase of reason, 

adjunct to "honorable."] 
They were so regarded, also, because instituted by the early Greek 

heroes. [Phrase of reason, adjunct to "honorable."] 

4. Napoleon made his son King of Rome. 

He did this after he had divorced Josephine. [Adverbial clause of time.} 
He did this after he had espoused Maria Louisa. [Adverbial clause of 

time.] 
Maria Louisa was daughter of the Emperor of Austria. [Adjective 

clause, adjunct to "Maria Louisa."] 

5. Augustus held a council in order to try certain prisoners. 
This was while he was at Samos. [Adverbial clause of time.] 

It was after the famous battle of Actium. [Adverbial clause of time.] 
This battle made him master of the world. [Adjective clause, adjunct 

of " battle of Actium."] 
The prisoners tried were those who had been engaged in Antony's party. 

[Adjective clause, adjunct of "prisoners."] 

0. Columbus saw at a distance a light. 

This was about two hours before midnight. [Adverbial phrase of time.] 
Columbus was standing on the forecastle. [Participial phrase, adjunct 

to "Columbus."] 
He pointed the light out to Pedro. [Adjective clause, adjunct to 

"light."] 
Pedro was a page of the queen's wardrobe. [Noun phrase, in apposition 

with "Pedro."] 

7. The man succeeded in reaching the bank. 

The man fell into the river. [Adjective clause, adjunct of subject.] 
Assistance arrived. [Participial phrase.] 

8. Caesar might not have been murdered. 

Suppose Coesar had taken the advice of the friend. [Adverbial clause 

of condition (if).] 
The friend warned him not to go to the Senate-house on the Ides of 

March. [Adjective clause, adjunct of " friend."] 



24 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

9. That valor lingered only among pirates and robbers. 

This valor had won the great battle of human civilization. [Adjective 

clause, adjunct to "valor."] 
It had saved Europe. [Adjective clause, adjunct to a valor."] 
It had subjugated Asia. [Adjective clause, adjunct to " valor."] 

10. There will be a camp-meeting. 

It is to commence the last Monday of this month. 

It is to be at the Double-spring Grove. 

This grove is near Peter Brinton's. 

Peter Brinton's is in the county of Shelby. 

11. My friend Sir Roger has often told me, with a great deal of mirth. 

He found three parts of his house altogether useless. [Noun clause, 

object of " told."] 
He came to his estate. [Adverbial clause, time.] 
The best room in it had the reputation of being haunted. [Noun clause, 

object of " told."] 
It was locked up. 
Noises had been heard in his long gallery. [Noun clause, object of 

u told."] 
He could not get a servant to enter it after eight o'clock at night. 
The door of one of his chambers was nailed up. [Noun clause, object 

of " told."] 
A story went in the family. [Adverbial clause, cause.] 
A butler had formerly hanged himself in it. 
His mother had shut up half the rooms in the house. 
His mother had lived to a great age. 
In the room her husband, a son, or a daughter had died. 



B. 

Separate the following complex sentences into the differ- 
ent propositions they contain : 

1. Animals of the cat kind are distinguished chiefly by their sharp claws, 

which they can hide or extend at pleasure. 

2. The plant samphire always grows in certain places on the sea-shore 

which are never covered by the sea. 

8. As they approached the coast, they saw it covered with a multitude of 
people whom the novelty of the spectacle had drawn together, and 
whose attitudes and gestures expressed wonder and astonishment at 
the strange objects which presented themselves to their view. 






THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 25 



Change the position of the clauses and phrases in the fol- 
lowing sentences in at least three different ways, without 
altering the construction or destroying the sense : 

1. I shall never consent to such proposals while I live. 

2. Augustus, while he was at Samos, after the famous battle of Actium, 

which made him master of the world, held a council, in order to try 
the prisoners who had been engaged in Antony's party. 

3. A scene of woe then ensued the like of which no eye had seen. 



Practical Exercises in Composing. 
A. 

Read aloud the following piece, and make an abstract 
from memory. Underline any complex sentences that you 
may write. 

PLEASANT REWARD OF CANDOR. 

A certain Spanish duke having obtained leave of the King of 
Spain to release some galley-slaves, went on board the galley at 
Barcelona, where the prisoners were chained at their work. 
Passing through the ^benches of slaves at the oar, he asked sev- 
eral of them what their offences were. All excused themselves, 
— one saying that he was put there out of malice, another by 
the bribery of a judge ; but all unjustly. Among the rest was 
a sturdy little fellow, whom the duke asked what he was there 
for. " Sir," said he, " I cannot deny that I am justly sent here ; 
for I wanted money, and so I took a purse upon the highway to 
keep me from starving." When he heard this, the duke, with 
a little stick he had in his hand, gave the man two or three 
slight blows on the back, saying, " You rogue, what are you 
doing among so many honest men ? Get you gone out of their 
company." So he was freed, and the rest of the gang remained 
there still to tug at the oar. 



26 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

B. 

Write a composition from the following outline : 

OUR THREE GREATEST AMERICAN INVENTIONS. 

1. The Cotton- Gin. 

(a.) Invented by Eli Whitney : state (if you can find out) when 

it was invented. 
(b.) Its utility — for what it is used — effect in increasing the 

cultivation of cotton — effect on the growth of slavery. 

2. The Steamboat. 

(a.) Invented by Robert Fulton : do you know anything about 
him ? Name of the first steamer made in this country, the 
Clermont; to what place did it run? When was the first 
trip made? 

(b.) What has grown out of this first experiment ? Speak of the 
great number of large steamers now found on all the waters 
of the world. 

3. The Telegraph. 

(a.) Invented by Professor Morse. Is he now alive ? The first 

line was constructed between Baltimore and Washington. In 

what year was this ? 
(p.) Progress of the telegraph — immense number of lines now 

constructed — mention in what countries — the Atlantic cable. 
(c.) Utility of the telegraph : its effect on every-day life — on 

business — on our knowledge of what is going on all over the 

world. 

[glT 3 Exchange papers, and correct with reference to — 

1. Spelling, capitals, and grammar. 

2. The arrangement of the phrases in all the sentences. 

3. The arrangement of the clauses in the complex sentences. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 27 

CHAPTER III. 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

1. Nature of Compound Sentences. 

26. A compound sentence consists of two or more inde- 
pendent propositions. 

The propositions of a compound sentence are of equal 
rank (co-ordinate). 

27, The connection of the separate statements of a com- 
pound sentence is effected by means of co-ordinate conjunc- 
tions ; and the nature of the connection depends on the kind 
of conjunction used. 

I. Co-ordinate conjunctions are divided into four classes — namely \ 
(1) copulative, (2) disjunctive, (3) adversative, (4) illative. [For 
a list of the connectives of compound sentences, see English 
Grammar, p. 232.] The following are illustrations : 

1. The rains descended and the floods came— [two statements 
united into a compound sentence by the copulative conjunction 
"and"]. 

2. We must win the fight or Molly Stark is a widow — [two state- 
ments united into a compound sentence by the disjunctive con- 
junction "or"]. 

3. The commander was unwilling to surrender; but the garrison 
compelled him to do so — [two statements united into a com- 
pound sentence by the adversative conjunction "but"]. 

4. Pittsburgh is in the centre of a rich coal region ; hence it is a 
great manufacturing city — [two statements united into a com- 
pound sentence by the illative conjunction "hence"]. 

II. Frequently the connective is omitted ; as — 

1. The queen of the spring, as she passed down the vale, 

Left her robe on the trees, [and] her breath on the gale. 
21 The evil that men do lives after them ; [but] the good is oft interred 
with their bones. 



28 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

III. In a compound sentence in which the relation of the mem- 
bers is copulative, the conjunction is often merged in a relative 
pronoun or conjunctive adverb ; as — 

1. He gave it to Peter, who [= and he] immediately handed it to 
John. 

2. I hope to meet you to-morrow, when [=. and then] we can ar- 
range the matter. 

The principal conjunctive adverbs so used are when, where, while, 
wherefore. 

Obs. — As relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs generally introduce 
subordinate propositions (clauses), a compound sentence like those given above 
must not be confounded with a complex sentence. 



EXERCISE 8, 
A. 

Add to each of the following statements another state- 
ment, so as to make a copulative compound sentence : 

Model : " In spring the farmer ploughs, and " In spring the farmer 

ploughs, and in autumn he reaps. 

1. In spring the farmer ploughs, and 

2. In winter the days are short, and 

3. Salt is procured from salt-mines ; it is also 

4. Hannibal was a great soldier, 

5. In various countries, different animals are used for beasts of burden ; we 

use the horse, and 

B. 

Add to each of the following statements another state- 
ment, so as to make an adversative compound sentence : 

Model: " Many persons tried to discourage Columbus, but " Manv 

persons tried to discourage Columbus, but he was determined to per- 
severe. 

1. Many persons tried to discourage Columbus, but 

2. Though Belgium is a small country, yet 

3. Religion dwells not on the tongue, 

4. It must be so : Plato, thou reasonest well ; else 

5. Napoleon was the greatest conqueror that ever lived ; neverthe- 
less 

6. Although sugar is made chiefly from the sugar-cane, 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 29 



c. 

Add to each of the following statements another state* 
mentj so as to make an illative compound sentence : 

Model: " The shadow of the earth on the moon's disk is always round; hence 

" The shadow of the earth on the moon's disk is always 

round ; hence this is a proof of the earth's rotundity. 

1. The shadow of the earth on the moon's disk is always round; 

hence 

2. The boy studied diligently, and therefore 

3. The Persians treated the Greeks unjustly, and consequently .. .... 

4. He lived extravagantly ; therefore 

5. Arnold had never firmness to resist the slightest temptation; so 

that 



II. Contracted Compound Sentences. 

28, The members of a compound sentence may have a 
common part in either the subject or the predicate; in 
which case the sentence is said to be contracted. Thus — 

1. The birds saw th& x little pool, and the birds came there to 
drink=:The birds saw the little pool, and came there to 
drink — [contraction in the subject]. 

2. The reasonable expectations of himself and the reasonable expec- 
tations of his friends were disappointed=The reasonable expec- 
tations of himself and of his friends were disappointed— [con- 
traction of adjunct of the subject]. 

3. Cold produces ice, and heat dissolves ic€=Cold produces and 
heat dissolves ice — [contraction in the object], 

4. Birds of the air find shelter in the shadow of its widespreading 
branches, and beasts of the forest find shelter in the shadow of 
its widespreading branches=Birds of the air and beasts of the 
forest find shelter in the shadow of its widespreading branches — 
[contraction in predicate and adjuncts]. 



30 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

EXERCISE 9. 

Contract the following compound sentences, and state the 
nature of the contraction : 

1 The jackal happened to be at a short distance, and the jackal was in- 
stantly despatched on this important business. 

2. The rice-plant grows in great abundance in China ; the rice-plant grows 

in great abundance in Japan; the rice-plant grows in great abundance 
in India. 

3. The east coast of Australia is rugged, and the east coast of Australia is 

deeply indented. 

4. Julius Caesar wrote with great vigor ; Julius Caesar fought with the same 

vigor. 

5. Light is a necessity of life, and air is a necessity of life. 



III. Punctuation of Compound Sentences. 

29. The members of a compound sentence are subject to 
the rules of punctuation that have been given for the sim- 
ple and for the complex sentence. The following rules ap- 
ply specially to the compound sentence : 

1. When a compound sentence consists of two short members con- 
nected by a conjunction, especially when there is contraction, the mem- 
bers are not separated by a comma; as — 

1. A little school-girl pressed a cherry between her lips and threw away 

the stone. 

2. I will arise and go to my father. 

2. Disjoined members of a compound sentence, whether full or con- 
tracted, are generally separated by commas, and always when there are 
more than two; as— 

1. On these trees they placed large stones, and then covered the whole 

with damp earth. 

2. The rich and the poor, the high and the low, the old and the young, 

were alike subjected to the vengeance of the conqueror. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 31 

3. The members of a compound sentence, which are themselves sub- 
divided by commas, are separated by semicolons ; as- 
Having detained you so long already, I shall not trespass longer upon 

your patience ; but, before concluding, I wish you to observe this 
point. 

4. In contracted compound sentences, omissions within the propositions 
are generally indicated by commas ; as— 

To err is human ; to forgive, divine. 



EXERCISE 10. 

Punctuate the following compound sentences : 

1. The keenest wit the most playful fancy the most genial criticism were 

lavished year after year with a profusion almost miraculous. 

2. On my approach the buffalo heaving himself forward with a heavy roll- 

ing gallop and dashing with precipitation through brakes and ravines 
again set off full tilt while several deer and wolves startled from their 
coverts by his thundering career ran helter-skelter right and left across 
the prairie. 

3. I spared no means to bring to pass whatever appeared necessary for my 

comfortable support for I considered the keeping up a breed of true 
creatures thus at my hand would be a living magazine of fresh milk 
butter and cheese. 

4. Prosperity will gain friends but adversity will try them. 

5. Ovid's pretended offence was the writing of certain verses but it is 

agreed on all hands and is in effect owned by himself that this was 
not the real cause of Ins exile. 

6. All nature is but art unknown to thee 

All chance direction which thou canst not see. 
All discord harmony not understood 
All partial evil universal good. 



IV. Synthesis of Compound Sentences., 

30. In Jthe synthesis of compound sentences from ele- 
ments, the nature of the separate statements should be care- 
fully considered, so as to connect in construction the mem- 
bers that are connected in Sense ; attention should also be 



32 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



Elements. 



given to the employment of the proper conjunction when 
one is required. 

In connecting the statements into one compound sen- 
tence, contraction is much employed, and the participial 
phrase is very useful. 

1. I had often received an invitation from my friend 
Sir Roger de Coverley to pass away a month 
with him in the country. 

2. I last week accompanied him thither. 

3. I am settled with him for some time at his coun- 
try-house. 

4. I intend there to form several of my ensuing 
speculations. 

Combined. —Having often received an invitation from my friend 
Sir Roger de Coverley to pass away a month with him in the 
country, I last week accompanied him thither, and am settled 
with him for some time at his country-house, where I intend to 
form several of my ensuing speculations. 

In combining the elements, statement 1 is changed to a particip- 
ial phrase, and introduces the sentence. Statement 2 forms the 
first member. Statement 3 forms the second member, and is 
connected with the preceding by a copulative conjunction. 
Statement 4 appears as a third member, and is connected by 
the conjunctive adverb where (=and there). 



EXERCISE 11. 

Combine the following statements into compound sen- 
tences : 

1. The island at first seemed uninhabited. 
The natives gradually assembled in groups on the shore. 
The natives overcame their natural shyness. 

. The natives received us very hospitably. 

They brought down for our use the various products of their island. 

2. The storm increased with the night. • 
The sea was lashed into tremendous confusion. 
There was a fearful, sullen sound of rushing waves. 
There was a fearful, sullen sound of broken surges. 
Deep called unto deep. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 33 

3. The great southern ocean is crowded with coral islands. 
It is crowded with submarine rocks of the same nature. 
These rocks are rapidly growing up to the surface. 
There they are destined to form new habitations for man. 
They will at length overtop the ocean. 

4. On the scaffold his behavior was calm. 

On the scaffold his countenance was unaltered. 

On the scaffold his voice was unaltered. 

He spent some time in devotion. 

Afterwards he suffered death. 

He died with intrepidity. 

This intrepidity became the name of Douglas. 

5. In the interior of the Cape of Good Hope, the beasts of the forest had 

for ages lived in comparative peace — [first leading proposition]. 
The wounded and terrified animals felt (something) — [second leading 

member, introduced by an adversative conjunction]. 
The Europeans spread themselves along the coast— [adverbial clause 

of time]. 
The Europeans forced their way into the woods— [adverbial clause of 

time]. 
The security was now gone — [noun clause, object of "felt"]. 
They had enjoyed security — [adjective clause, adjunct of " security"]. 



Practical Exercises in Composing. 
A. 

Write a composition from the following outlines, and un- 
derline the compound sentences : 

BIRDS' -NESTS. 

1. Why they are built. — Places where the birds may lay and 
hatch their eggs — as dwellings for their young. 

2. Materials from which they are made. — Enumerate these — 
straw, twigs, moss, wool, clay, etc. 

3. Form, and how they are made. — Describe the shape of birds'- 
nests, and how the birds work them into shape. This is done 
by "instinct." What is instinct? 

4. Where birds build. — Mention where the birds with whose 



34 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

habits you are acquainted build. Where does the thrush build? 
the whippoorwill ? the martin ? 
" The swallow twittering from its straw-built shed ?" 
Where do birds of prey build ? 
5. Eelate any personal experience you have had with birds'-nests. 

jgir 5 Exchange papers for criticism. 



B. 

Write a short account of the work and materials of the 
following tradesmen : 

THE COOPER. 

The cooper is principally employed in making barrels for the pres- 
ervation of various substances. These barrels differ greatly in 
size, from the huge vat, required by the distiller and brewer, to 
the small cask used by the grocer. Besides these, he manu- 
factures tubs, pails, and other vessels of domestic utility. The 
best kinds of wood for cooperage are oak, beech, and fir. For 
the purposes of the cooper, these are cut into long, flat pieces, 
called staves, a few inches broad, and about half an inch thick. 
In making barrels, the staves are cut a certain length, and 
tapered a little toward each end. They are also formed with a 
slight curve, which produces the swelling in the centre peculiar 
to barrels. The bottom of the barrel consists either of one piece 
of wood, or of several joined together. The staves being ar- 
ranged round it, they are kept in their places by iron hoops. 
The cooper then forces on the hoops, and, after placing in the 
head, continues to drive them towards the centre until the ves- 
sel is rendered perfectly water-tight. The adze, the plane, and a 
peculiar kind of knife, called a drawing-knife, are the principal 
instruments used by the cooper. 

The blacksmith. The trunk-maker. 

The book-binder. The wheelwright. 

The boiler-maker. The rope-spinner. 

The painter. The ship -carpenter. 

The plumber. The glass-blower. 



CONVERSION AND COMBINATION OF SENTENCES. 35 



CHAPTEK IV. 

CONVERSION AND COMBINATION OF SEN- 
TENCES. 

I. Expansion. 

31 1 Method. — A simple sentence may be converted into 
a complex sentence by changing, some word or phrase into a 
clause. 

A complex sentence may be converted into a compound 
sentence by changing a clause into an independent member. 

The process by which these changes are made is called 
expansions 

(1) 

Simple .Quarrelsome persons are despised. 

Complex Persons who are quarrelsome are despised. 

(3) 

Simple The minutest animal, examined attentively, affords a thou- 
sand wonders. 

Complex The minutest animal, when it is examined attentively^ 

affords a thousand wonders. 

(3) 

Simple No one doubts the roundness of the earth. 

Complex No one doubts that the earth is round. 

Compound... The earth is round, and no one doubts it [or the fact]. 



EXERCISE 12. 
A. 

Expand the following simple into complex sentences : 

1. The physician predicted the recovery of your father. 

2. Men of great talent are not always lovable persons. 

3. The Jews still expect the coming of the Messiah. 



36 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

4. The rainbow seen yesterday afternoon was very beautifuL 

5. The stars appear small to us because of their distance. 

6. Biding along, I observed a man by the roadside. 

B. 

Expand the following simple sentences into com/plex, and 
then, if possible, into compound : 

1. The light infantry having joined the main body, the enemy retired pre- 

cipitately towards the river. 

2. The water is not fit to drink on account of its saltness. 

3. With patience he might have succeeded. 

4. The wind being fair, the vessel put to sea. 

5. The door being opened, the people crowded into the hall. 

6. The child obeys, from love to his parents. 



II. Contraction. 

32. Method. — Compound sentences are reduced to com- 
plex and to simple sentences by contraction — which is the 
reverse of expansion. It consists in converting one of the 
independent members of the compound sentence into a 
clause, and in converting the clause of the complex sentence 
into a phrase or a word. 

(1) 
Compound... Egypt is a fertile country, and is watered by the river 
Nile, which annually inundates it. 

- Complex Egypt is a fertile country, which is watered by the river 

Nile, and which is annually inundated by it. 

Simple Egypt is a fertile country watered by the river Nile, and 

annually inundated by it. 

(2) 

Compound... He was a worthless man, and therefore he could not be 
respected by his subjects. 

Complex Since he was a worthless man, he could not be respect- 
ed by his subjects. 

Simple Being a worthless man, he could not be respected by his 

subjects. 



CONVERSION AND COMBINATION OF SENTENCES. 37 

EXERCISE 13. 
A. 

Contract the following complex sentences into simple 

sentences : 

1. As Egypt is annually inundated by the Nile, it is a very fertile country. 

2. The ostrich is unable to fly, because it has not wings in proportion to its 

body. 
8. While Doctor Johnson was writing many of his works, he was in great 
distress. 

4. Unless we are diligent, nothing can be done that is worth doing. 

5. Sulla resigned the dictatorship for the reason that he hoped to enjoy quiet 

in private life. [Participial phrase.] 

B. 

Contract the following compound sentences into complex, 
and, where possible, into simple : 

1. The doors were opened, and the crowd immediately rushed in. 

2. Croesus was enormously rich, and yet he was far from happy. 

3. He descended from his throne, ascended the scaffold, and said, "Live, 

incomparable pair." 

4. You are perplexed, and I see it. 



III. Combination of Sentences. 

33, In combining sentences into short compositions, the 
following directions should be observed : 

Direction L — Read carefully the various statements. Se- 
lect such as seem to be the leading statements, and express 
the other thoughts by means of adjuncts — words, phrases, 
or clauses. 

Direction II. — Aim at variety of construction; that is, 
do not form a succession of sentences of any one type ; but 
make them simple, complex, or compound, as seems best 
suited to the purpose. ■ 



38 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 






Direction IIL — Be very careful not to join facts that have 
no natural or logical connection into long, loose, compound 
sentences connected by ands* 

34. The following will illustrate the method of combin- 
ing detached statements into well-constructed sentences : 

DETACHED STATEMENTS. 

1. Alphonso was King of Sicily. 

2. Alphonso was King of Naples. 

3. Alphonso was remarkable for his kindness to his subjects. 

4. At one time Alphonso was travelling privately through Cam- 

pania. 

5. Alphonso came up to a muleteer. 

6. The muleteer's beast had stuck in the mud. 

7. The muleteer could not draw it out with all his strength. 

8. The poor man had implored the aid of every passer in vain. 

9. He now sought assistance from the king. 

10. He did not know who the king was. 

11. Alphonso quickly dismounted from his horse. 

12. Alphonso helped the man. 

13. Alphonso soon freed the mule. 

14. Alphonso brought it upon safe ground. 

15. The muleteer learned that it was the king. 

16. The muleteer fell on his knees. 

17. The muleteer asked his pardon. 

18. Alphonso removed his fears. 

19. Alphonso told him that he had given no offence. 

20. This goodness of the king reconciled many to him. 

21. Many had formerly opposed him. 

* The kind of sentence condemned in Direction III. is shown below, and 
an improved form is given : 

iA fox was passing through a vineyard, and he saw some 
line bunches of grapes on one of the trees, and so he 
tried to reach one of them, but it was hanging very 
high, and he could not get it. 

f A fox, passing through a vineyard, saw some fine bunches 

Improved < of grapes on one of the trees. He tried to reach one of 

f them, but as it hung very high he could not get it. 



CONVERSION AND COMBINATION OF SENTENCES. 39 

METHOD OF SYNTHESIS. 

Unite 1, 2, 3 into one simple sentence, because the principal state- 
ment is, " was remarkable for his kindness," etc. ; u King of 
Sicily," " King of Naples," will come in as appositional elements. 

Unite 4, 5, 6, 7 into one complex sentence, and substitute the pro- 
noun he for " Alphonso." 

Unite 8, 9, 10 into one complex sentence, making 9 the principal 
predicate, 8 an adjective clause. 

Unite 11, 12, 13, and 14 into one compound sentence, making 11 
one principal member, 12 a participial phrase, 13 and 14 prin- 
cipal members. 

Unite 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 into one compound sentence, making 15 a 
participial phrase, 16 and 17 principal predicates; connect 18 
as a principal member by means of but, and convert 19 into a 
prepositional phrase. 

Unite 20 and 21 as a complex sentence. 

Combination. — Alphonso, King of Sicily and Naples, was remark- 
able for his kindness to his subjects. At one time, when travelling pri- 
vately through Campania, he came up to a muleteer, whose beast had 
stuck in the mud, and who could not draw it out with all his strength. 
The poor man, who had in vain implored the aid of every passer, now 
sought assistance from the king, not knowing who he was. Alphonso 
quickly dismounted from his horse, and helping the man, soon freed 
the mule, and brought it upon safe ground. The muleteer, learning 
that it was the king, fell on his knees and asked his pardon ; but Al- 
phonso removed his fears by telling him that he had given no offence. 
This goodness of the king reconciled many who had formerly been 
opposed to him 



EXERCISE 14. 

Combine the following statements into well-constructed 
sentences, forming a continuous narrative : 

1. ABOUT TEA. 
Tea is the dried leaf of a shrub. This shrub grows chiefly in 
China and Japan. It is an evergreen. It grows to the height 
of from four to six feet. It bears beautiful white flowers. These 



40 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

flowers resemble wild roses. In China, there are many tea-farms. 
These are generally of small extent. They are situated in the 
upper valleys. They are situated on the sloping sides of the 
hills. In these places the soil is light. It is rich. It is wfcll 
drained. The plants are raised from seed. They are generally 
allowed to remain three years in the ground. A crop of leaves 
is then taken from them. The leaves are carefully picked by 
the hand. 

2. THE OSTRICH.* 

The ostrich inhabits the sandy deserts of Asia. It inhabits the 
sandy deserts of Africa. It is from seven to eight feet high. 
We measure from the top of the head to the ground. The head 
is small. The neck is long. Both head and neck are destitute 
of feathers. The feathers on the body of the male are black. 
The feathers on the female are dusky. The thighs are naked. 
The legs are hard. The legs are scaly. The ostrich has two 
very large toes. These toes are of unequal size. The largest is 
seven inches long. The other is about four inches long. The 
hunting of this bird is very laborious. The bird is very swift. 
The fleetest horse cannot overtake it. The following mode is 
adopted by the Arabians to catch it. One continues the chase 
as long as possible. The chase is then taken up by another. 
The bird is at length worn down. 

3. HISTORY OF PAPER. 
The first manufactured paper we hear of was that made from the 
papyrus. The papyrus is a species of reed growing abundantly 
in the waters of the Nile. Did the art of making it originate 
among the Egyptians themselves? We have no means of judg- 
ing of this. Paper of this sort was known to the Greeks and 
Romans. The first appears beyond a doubt to have been manu- 
factured in Egypt. The article became known and valued. It 
formed an important article of commerce to the Egyptians. 
The Egyptians exported it in large quantities. 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. <£1 

CHAPTER V. 
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION, 

35. Variation of expression is effected in two ways: 
1. By variation of the arrangement or structure of the sen- 
tence. 2. By variation of phraseology, 

1. Variation in Arrangement and Structure. 

36, The following are the principal methods of varying 
the structure of sentences : 

Method t.— By using the passive voice of a verb instead of the active, 
or the active instead of the passive. Thus- 
Active... One common spirit actuated all the leading men of the 

Revolution. 
Passive.. The leading men of the Revolution were all actuated by 
one common spirit. 



EXERCISE 15. 

Yary the structure of the following sentences by changing 
the active into passive, and the passive into active; 

1. Galileo invented the telescope. 

2. Whatever is offensive in our manner is corrected by gentleness. 

3. Darius, king of Persia, was defeated by Miltiades the Athenian. 

4. Education forms the youthful mind. 

5. Every summer we may observe the mischievous effects of the rapacity 

of birds in the Vegetable kingdom. 

6. About two hours before midnight, Columbus, standing on the deck, 

noticed a light at a distance, and pointed it out to his companion, 
Pedro. 

7. It was said by Talleyrand that the object of language is to conceal* 

thought. 



42 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

Method II.— By changing a declarative into an interrogative sen- 
tence. Thus— 

Declaration. — No one can count the number of the stars. 
Question. — Who can count the number of the stars ? 

Declaration. — Every one hopes to live long. 
Question. — Who does not hope to live long ? 

The primary use of interrogation is to ask a question ; but a state- 
ment may often be made in the form of a question when no 
answer is expected. Such a question is frequently more em- 
phatic and convincing than the direct declaration would be. 

Obs. — A negative statement implies an affirmative question, and the reverse, 



EXERCISE 16. 

Vary the expression by using the interrogative form ; 

1. No one can listen to the recital of such misery and remain unmoved. 

2. This is not the character of British justice. 

3. The Judge of all the earth will do right. 

4. We are indebted to the vegetable world for a great part of our clothing. 

5. We shall not gather strength by irresolution and inaction. 

6. Can storied urn or animated bust 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? 
Can honor's voice provoke the silent dust? 
Or flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death ? 



Method III.— By changing a statement into the form of an exclama- 
tion. Thus— 

Statement. — The moonlight sleeps sweet upon this bank. 
Exclamation. — How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! 

In exclamative sentences the verb is frequently omitted; as, 
-" What enchanting music !"r=What enchanting music this is ! 
This, in turn, is the exclamative form of the statement, " The 
music is enchanting." 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 43 



EXERCISE 17. 

Vary the structure by changing the sentences into the 
exclamativeform : 

L. The scenes of my childhood are dear to my heart. 

2. I wish that I were capable of placing this great man before you. 

3. Sleep is wonderful. 

4. Their harmony foretells a world of happiness. 

5. I would give my kingdom for a horse, a horse. 

6. It is very cold. 



Method IV.— By using " there" or "it" as the anticipative subject. 

Thus— 

1. A voice came from heaven, saying, "Thou art my beloved Son" 
=zThere came a voice from heaven, saying, " Thou art my beloved 
Son." 

2. With a handful of men Napoleon routed all these forces= It icas 
with a handful of men [that] Napoleon routed all these forces. 

Since the beginning is the usual place for the subject, to remove 
it from the beginning is a mode of emphasizing it. 



EXERCISE 18. 

Yary the following expressions by using the anticipative 
subjects there or it : 

1. A very large comet was seen in 1680. 

2. A report was in circulation that the army had been defeated. 

3. No place is like home. 

4. A braver soldier than Old Put never lived. 

5. A poor exile of Erin came to the beach. 

6. "A divinity shapes our ends," says Shakspeare. 

7. Scipio conquered Hannibal. 

8. Mutual respect makes friendship lasting, 
y. We are to blame. 

10. Thomas built this house. 

11. By rigid economy men grow rich. 

12. To have loved und lost is better than never to have loved at alL 



44 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

Method v.— By abridging clauses into phrases or words; that is, by 
transforming complex sentences into simple sentences. Thus— 

1. When they had reduced \i— having reduced it. 

2. As I have no anxiety shaving no anxiety. 

3. A fact that must not be spoken about=3, fact not to be spoken about 

4. I know the reason why you do not improve=l know the reason 
of your not improving. 

5. We believe that the earth is roundz=zwe believe the earth to be 
round. 

6. I hear that he has gone to college=I hear of his having gone to 
college. 



EXERCISE 19. 

Vary the expressions in italics by employing equivalent 
phrases or words : 

1. As Hooked over the paper, I saw this advertisement. 

2. If this point is admitted, we proceed to the next argument. 

3. Wellington was sure of victory even before Blucher arnved. 

4. it is a great secret that must not be whispered even to your cat. 

5. The period when the mariner's compass was discovered is uncertain (the 

period of the discovery, etc.). 

6. 1 desire that you should read Milton. 

7. His favorite project was that he might make Scotland a republic. 

8. My father bought a machine with which to mow. 

9. Sidney asked a soldier that he would bring him some water. 

10. Loyalty to the king which amounted to abject servility was a national 

trait of the Persians.. 

11. The man that hath not music in himself is fit for treasons, stratagems, and 

spoils. 

12. The place where Moses is buried is unknown. 



Method VI.— By changing from the direct to the indirect form ot 
speech, or the reverse. Thus— 

Indirect. — Henry Clay said that he would rather be right than 

be President. 
Direct. — U J would rather," said Henry Clay, "be right than be 

President.^ 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 45 

I. The direct form of speech gives the words of a speaker exactly 
as uttered by himself; the indirect form gives them as reported 
by another. All words in the direct form are to be enclosed in 
quotation-marks. 

II. The principal variations in passing from the direct form of 
speech to the indirect are these: 

1. The first and second persons are changed to the third. 

2. The present tense is changed to its corresponding past. 

3. The near demonstrative this is changed into the more remote 
that. 

EXERCISE 20. 

Change the quotations in the following passages from the 
direct to the indirect statement : 

1. When Alexander the Great was asked why he did not contend in the 

Olympic games, he said, "I will when I have kings for my com- 
petitors.' ' 

2. In one of his letters, Pope says, " I should hardly care to have an old 

post pulled up that I remember when a child." 

3. "I have often," said Byron, "left my childish sports to ramble in this 

place; its glooms and its solitude had a mysterious charm for my 
young mind, nurturing within me that love of quietness and lonely 
thinking which has accompanied me to maturer years." 

4. Lord Chatham remarked : "I rejoice that the grave has not closed upon 

me: that I am still alive to lift up my voice against a great wrong." 



Method VII.— By transposition, i. e., by varying the order of the com* 
ponent parts of a sentence. 

There is a customary order of the parts of a sentence which in ordi- 
nary speech and writing we unconsciously follow ; but, for the sake of 
emphasis or adornment, this natural arrangement of words is often de- 
parted from. The common arrangement may be called the grammatical 
order ; the inverted arrangement, the rhetorical order. The rhetorical 
order belongs peculiarly to poetry, but it is often used in prose also. 

37. General Rule. — Emphatic words must stand in promi- 
nent positions; i. e. 5 for the most part, at the beginning or at the 
end of sentences. Thus — 



46 



EXGLISH COMPOSITION. 



GRAMMATICAL ORDER. 

I shall attempt neither to palliate 
nor deny the atrocious crime of 
being a young man. 

The gate is iciJe and the way is 
broad that leadeth to destruc- 
tion. 

They could take their rest, for 
they knew that Lord Stratford 
watched. They feared Am, they 
trusted Am, they obeyed Asm. 

The night-winds sigh, the break- 
ers roar, and the wild sea-mew 
shrieks. 



RHETORICAL ORDER. 

The atrocious crime of being a young 
man I shall attempt neither 
palliate nor deny. 

Wide is the gate ;,nd broad is the 
way that leadeth to destruo 
tion. 

They could take their rest, for 
they knew that Lord Stratford 
watched. Him they feared, him 
they trusted, him they obeyed. 

The night-winds sigh, the break- 
ers roar, 

And shriels the wild sea-mew. 



ng 
to 



38, The rhetorical order belongs peculiarly to poetry. 
The following are some of the principal poetical construc- 
tions : 

1. The auxiliary verb to do is dispensed with in interrogation : as-^ 

Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle ? — Byron. 
Ho ! come ye in peace here, or come ye in war?— Scott. 

2. The verb precedes the nominative : as — 

While sta?nU the Coliseum, Rome shall stand. — Byron. 

Answered Fitz- James : u And if I thought."— Scott. 

O'er the path so well known still proceeded the ?naid.—Southey. 

3. The object precedes the verb : as — 

Lands he could measure, times and tides presage. — Goldsmith. 
The Stuart sceptre well she swayed, but the sword she could not wield. 

—KG. Bell 

4. The noun precedes the adjective : as — 

Hadst thou sent warning, fair and true. — Scott. 

Now is the pleasant time, the cool, the sile?it.— Hilton. 

5. The adjective precedes the verb to be: as — 

Few and stiort were the prayers we said. — JYolfe. 
Rich were the sable robes she wore. — H. G. Bell. 

6. The pronoun is expressed in the imperative : as — 

Wipe thou thine eyes.— Shakspeare. 
But, blench not thou.— Byron. 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 47 

7. Adjectives are used for adverbs : as — 

False flew the shaft, though pointed well. — Moore. 
Abrupt and loud, a summons shook the gate. — Campbell. 

8. Personal pronouns are used with their antecedents : as — 

The wind, it waved the willow boughs. — Southey. 
For the deck, it was their field of fame.— Campbell. 

9. The antecedent is omitted : as — 

Who steals my purse, steals trash. — Shakspeare. 
Happy, who walks with him.— Cowper. 

10. And — and is used for loth — and; or — or for either — or; nor 
— nor for neither — nor : as — 

And trump and timbrel answered keen.— Scott. 
I whom nor avarice nor pleasures move. — Wahh. 

11. Adverbial phrases are not placed in juxtaposition with the 
words to which they grammatically belong : as — 

On thy voiceless shore 
The heroic lay is tuneless now. — Byron. 
By forms unseen their dirge is sung.— Collins. 

12. Prepositions are suppressed : as — 

Despair and anguish fled . . . the struggling soul. — Goldsmith. 
And like the bird whose pinions quake 
But cannot fly . . . the gazing snake. — Byron. 



NOTE. 



In transposing poetical passages from the metrical to the prose order, 
all ellipses should be supplied, and the elements of each sentence should 
in the first instance be arranged in logical order, viz. : 1. The subject 
with its modifiers ; 2. The verb ; 3. The object (or complement) ; 4. 
The adverbial phrases or clauses. This order may afterwards be mod- 
ified according to the rules we have already had for the arrangement 
of phrases and clauses, so as to make the sentence more graceful and 
harmonious. 



48 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

EXERCISE 21. 
A. 

Change the following sentences from the common to the 
rhetorical order : 

1. The Alps are behind you. 

2. The uses of adversity are sweet. 

3. My brothers shall never again embrace me. 

4. He is a freeman whom the truth makes free. 

5. Diana of the Ephesians is great. 

6. Yet a few days and the all-beholding sun shall see thee no more. 

7. They laid him down slowly and sadly. 

8. I know Jesus, and I know Paul ; but who are ye ? 

9. He imprisoned some, he put to death others. 

10. Macbeth could scarcely understand what they said. 

B. 

Passages of poetry should be selected by the teacher for 
transposition into the prose order. 

C. 

Write a composition from the following outline, being 
careful as to variety of expression : 

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 

Introduction. — State what parts of the world were known, and 
what parts unknown, at the time of the birth of Columbus — 
speak about the prevailing incorrect notions regarding the 
shape of the earth. 

Biography of Columbus.— His early history — born in Genoa 
during the first half of the 15th century — his early training 
and sea -life — his conviction that the earth is globe -like in 
shape — his theory of a western continent — is spurned by vari- 
ous governments — aided by Spain — his first voyage, and the 
discovery. [Merely mention the later voyages in a single sen- 
tence.] His death in poverty and disgrace. 

Character of Columbus.— The grandeur of his idea — his faith 
and perseverance — his boldness and courage — lessons his life 
should teach us. 






VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 49 

II. Variation of Phraseology. 

I. -BY THE USE OF SYNONYMS. 

39. Phraseology, or the language used in expressing a 
thought, is varied by substitution, which is the process of 
writing in place of one word or phrase another of the same 
or similar meaning. 

40. Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly 
the same signification. 

I. Synonymous words sometimes have the same general meaning, 
but a different shade of signification ; as, for example, mix and 
blend. Both these words mean, in general, to put substances 

' together so that their parts mingle or unite in some way ; but 
when we are speaking of mixing two colors, and of the colors 
of the rainbow Mending with one another, the particular mean- 
ing is very different. Mixing makes two colors one ; blending 
is their gradual, almost imperceptible, merging into one another. 

II. There are more words which are nearly synonymous (in the 
strict sense) in English than in other languages, because in the 
case of a large proportion of words we have often two sets of 
derivatives, one from Latin, the other from Anglo-Saxon, which 
are nearly parallel in meaning : as — 

LATIN. SAXON. 

puerile \ = boyish 

conceal = hide 

deride = laugh at 

It will be found, generally speaking, that the Saxon expression is 
the stronger of the two — the plainer, and therefore the stronger. 
Thus friendly is much more hearty and forcible than amicable. 
Hence it is a good general rule to prefer Saxon terms to Latin. 
The former will not always serve as well as the latter, but in 
most cases they will serve much better. 

III. Facility of expression is a most important quality of good 
writing. In order to acquire this we must have an ample stock 
of words, and we must also learn to distinguish the different 
sJiades of meaning in a group of generically allied words. Ex- 
ercises like those which follow will be useful. 



50 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

EXERCISE 22. 
A. 

Supply the appropriate words : 

Account, description, detail, history, narration, narrative, relation, story. 

Bancroft's of the United States is not yet completed. 

He gives an interesting of the early voyagers. 

Have you read the of Damon and Pythias ? 

I hoped to move him by a of the dangers I have gone through. 

His of that event is striking. 

Ease, relieve, mitigate, alleviate, allay, appease, soothe, tranquillize, quiet, still. 
Bunyan icpresents Christian as being of his burden at the sight of 

the cross. 
It is our duty to the distresses 01 others, by their sorrows, 

their fears, and their resentments. 

The wrath of Achilles was not to be 

Do not hope to your conscience while enjoying the fruits of your 

offence. 

Enjoyment, pleasure, delight, satisfaction, gratification. 

She is in the of excellent health. 

I hope to have the of spending a long evening with you. 

It gives me no to have the private affairs of my neighbor overhauled 

in my hearing. 
Life was given us for more important purposes than the of our 

animal appetites. 
True friendship is a source of exquisite 

B. 

Make sentences, using each of the following synonyms : 

Model. — 1. He did not arrive in time; the delay of the train was & fortu- 
nate circumstance for him. 2. One would think your brother is always 
to be lucky. 






1. Fortunate — lucky. 

2. Folly — fooling. 

3. Communicate — impart. 

4. Brave — courageous. 

5. Erect — construct. 

6. Bind — tie. 

7. Reprove — reproach. 

8. Blame — censure. 

9. Behavior — conduct. 
10. Beat — strike. 



11. Pride — haughtiness. 

12. Proposal — proposition. 

13. Rural — rustic. 

14. Safe — secure. 

15. Shadow — shade. 

16. Sorry — grieved. 

17. Diligent — industrious. 

18. Pride — vanity. 

19. Healthy — wholesome. 

20. Petition — request. 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION'. 51 

c. 

In the following passages, change such words and phrases 
as are printed in italics to the proper synonymous words or 
phrases : 

t What safety can we have from tyranny, if judges are removable by the 
executive ? 

2. Julius Caesar is said to have been a man of amiable inclination. 

3. I have the pride to think that I have discovered a new machine. 

4. Brooklyn is contiguous to New York. 

5. What do you esteem this ring to be worth ? 

6. The sailors having asked leave of the captain, were admitted to go on 

shore. 

7. Will you allow my first proposition to be true ? 

8. u Tomatoes," said she, "are very healthy ; they give/orce to the liver." 



II.-BY DENYING THE CONTRARY. 

41. An affirmative can of ten be converted into an equiva- 
lent negative, or a negative into an equivalent affirmative, 
by the use of a word of opposite meaning in the predicate. 
Thus— 

There is as much beauty in the earth as there is grandeur in the 
heavens = There is no less beauty in the earth than grandeur in 
the heavens. 



EXERCISE 23. 

Vary the expressions in the manner indicated : 

1. The miser is unhappy (far from). 

2. That tree is alive. 

3. It is difficult to get rid of bad habits. 

4. I hate you, Dr. Fell. 

5. The success at Trenton had a great influence on the war. 

6. The duration of our existence is finite. 

7. Henry is indolent =Henry is not diligent. 

8. Solon, the Athenian, effected a great change in the constitution of his 

country. 



52 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



42. A change similar to that just given is made by 
euphemism (soft-speaking), which is a roundabout manner 
of expression, used to avoid the harshness of direct state- 
ment. Thus — 



DIRECT. 

He was drunk 
Mary is lazy 
I hate that man 



EUPHEMISMS. 



He had indulged himself in liquor, 
Mary is not noted for industry. 
I have not the warmest feeling of 
affection for that man. 



EXERCISE 24. 

Vary the expression by using euphemism: 

1. Charles is a coward. 

2. He is a conceited fellow. 

3. I believe that he stole that book. 

4. John Brown was hanged. 

5. Jessie is a careless girl. 

6. That man was turned out of office. 



III.-BY PERIPHRASIS, OR CIRCUMLOCUTION. 

43. Periphrasis, or circumlocution, is the use of several 
words to express the sense of one. Thus — 



PLAIN FORM. 

The sun 

Mankind 

Geography 



PERIPHRASIS. 



The glorious orb of day. 
The human race. 

The science which describes the 
earth and its inhabitants. 



EXERCISE 25. 

Yary the expression in the manner indicated : 

1. We must die. 

2. The ocean is calm. 

3. A hero is dead. 

4. Astronomy is a delightful study. 

5. Life is short. 

6. Obedience is due to our parents. 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 



53 



IV.— BY RECASTING THE SENTENCE. 

44. The mode of varying the expression which is called 
recasting the sentence is one that cannot be reduced to 
fixed rule. Practice, however, will give skill in changing 
the forms of statement so as to express a thought in many 
different ways. 

45. The following are variant modes of making the state* 
inent, " The whale is the largest animal : " 

1. The whale is larger than any other animal. 

2. The whale surpasses all other animals in size. 

3. The whale is unequalled in size by any other 
animal. 

4. The size of the whale exceeds that of any other 
animal. 

5. No other animal is so large as the whale. 

6. All other animals are inferior in size to the whale, 

7. The whale is pre-eminent over every other animal 
in size. 

8. No other animal approaches the whale in mag- 
nitude. 

9. All animals must yield to the whale in point of 
size. 

10. No other animal ever reaches the magnitude of 
the whale. 

11. The whale is without a rival in magnitude among 
animals. 

12. In point of size, the whale surpasses all other 
animals. 



Variations, 



Note. — In substance, each of these twelve sentences is identical with the 
original statement; but how many forms do we obtain by calling in the aid of 
the art of varying expression ! Now, the practical importance of facility in 
changing the form of statement is this : we cannot, in any case, be quite sure 
that we have employed the best mode of wording a given sentence until we 
have rapidly run over in our minds the various ways in which it may be 
worded. By practice we learn to think promptly of many forms of expression, 
and to select the best. 



54 

EXERCISE 26. 

ithout eluuuji airing: 



Q ft Is the r I metals* 

& The eye iufiv. <scs all the works of human Logon 

he cause af prosper-. 

useful lessons from the lower ">*raffrr 

6L Beware of desperate steps -the. darkest day will by to-morrow have 

Laway. 






Practical Exercises in Composing. 

L Descriptive Sultfects. 

ite a short i :n tlie following ouflin 

Rut: «, — A preparation from one name 

'.eading ones — mention the kir sad — whk 

in use in your part of the country ? — mode of prepariv 
bread : trace the process fiom the threshing of the wlu 
the loaf com lift? — use 

everywhere — wind h a country uses, its food is cheap or 






EL Letter-Writing; 

a letter to your teacher narrating your u Experiences 

during Last Vacation." 
& Write and tell your duties at school — your amusements or reo 

:v..: ; .;•_;.>— your ■ .'.n>- x>— :V.^-.-.j"-:s •/: -' s-;:v.-.:; •->. 
Sl Write and tell about a visit to a museum or public garden — the 

oV;;-;:s :" " : ->: ::e. 

4. Write about the days of your childhood — your earnest recollec- 
tions — you: school — your impressions— your ideas 
about that period of your life. 

5. Tell about the book you are reading— the name— the subjev 



VAj I.XPBZ88I0N. 

the style — the information — your opinion of it — any other work* 
the same am h 

6. V. *.ell about an < *rty— the number — the amuse- 
ments — the mnde the pleasure* of social intercourse, 

7. V. 

-omoted — what studies yon are pursuing with most interest, 



HI Hewspaper Paragraph!, 
On t!j'; following heads write paragra; h as yon read 

in the of the newapope 

A FrRE.— Late last night our quiet town was startled by an alarm 



Presbyterian So —The Ladies' Sociable 

the Presbyterian Church met 



A New ScHOOL-HorsE. — To-day the laying of the corner-stone of 
f ; Washington School in this city will take plac ; 



the Broad Street Station 



IV. Stories from Heads. 

Write stories from the following heads: 

l. Counoo* axd n: 

cardinal — the banquet — the courtier — the enry— the de 
trac* ; challenge — the attempts — the failures— 

the accomplishment — the application. 



56 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

2. The Old Man and the Bundle of Sticks : 

The sons — the disagreement — the death-bed — the meeting — the 
advice — the bundle — the command — the failure — the single 
stick — the moral. 

3. " Don't Give up the Ship I" 

Challenge of the British ship Shannon — the brief fight — the 
dreadful slaughter — the surrender — Lawrence's memorable 
words. 



V, Biographical Sketches, 
Write short biographical sketches from the following 
outlines : 

1. George Washington : 

Founder of the Republic of the United States — born at Bridge's 
Creek, Va., 1732 — education, simple and meagre — early taste for 
military life — becomes public surveyor to Lord Fairfax — adju- 
tant-general of the Virginia militia — encroachments of the 
French— his first campaign — campaign under Braddock — mar- 
ries and settles at Mount Vernon — outbreak of the Revolution 
— appointed commander-in-chief, 1775 — (two or three general 
sentences about Washington's conduct during the war) — elected 
first President — re-elected — dies — his character: simple, truth- 
ful, sincere, patriotic — patient, persevering, disinterested — his 
influence on the young republic. 

2. Sir Walter Raleigh : 

Birthplace — education — his first voyage — other employments— 
his appearance at the court of Elizabeth — his accomplishments 
— anecdote of his readiness and tact — the queen and the velvet 
cloak — his promotions and rewards — his next voyage to Amer- 
ica — the importation of tobacco and potatoes into England — 
the colony of Virginia — his arrest for treason, and imprisonment 
in the Tower — his release after thirteen years — his expedition to 
Oronoco, and its object — circumstances that led to his execution 
— his character, moral and intellectual. 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 5f 

CHAPTEK VI. 
ON STYLE. 

46. The manner in which thoughts are expressed con- 
stitutes style. 

The term " style " is derived from the Latin word stylus, the name 
of the instrument with which the Romans wrote. The change 
by which the word, from designating the instrument, came to 
denote the use made of it, is similar to the transformation in 
the meaning of the English word pen. Thus, "Swift wields 
a caustic pen " = his manner of writing (i. e., his " style ") is 
caustic. 

47. The excellence of a piece of writing depends pri- 
marily upon that of its separate sentences. Now, the ex- 
cellence of a sentence depends upon two things : 

1. Language, or the choice of words. 

2. Construction, or the arrangement of the parts of a sen- 
tence. 



I. Choice of Words. 

48. First Kequisite.— Accuracy in the Use of Words. 
Accuracy is that quality of language which consists in 
using the " right word in the right place." 

I. Accuracy in the use of words cannot be acquired in a few easy 
lessons. All that can be done is to put pupils in the way of 
thinking about the words they employ ; and this habit, once 
gained, will gradually bring about correctness in the use of lan- 
guage. 

II. Particular care should be exercised in the use of prepositions, 
conjunctions, and other particles. 



58 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

1. There never was such a quantity of animals at any cattle-show. 

A " quantity n means a single mass, and hence this term cannot be used to 
denote many different animals. It should be, " There never were so many;' 1 or, 
"There never was such a number" etc. 

2. The attempt was found to be impracticable. 

An " attempt" may be unsuccessful, or futile; but as an attempt implies 
some effort made, it cannot be said to be " impracticable," which means im- 
possible of doing. 

3. 1 find no difficulty of keeping up with my class. 
This should be, " in keeping," etc. 



.. 



EXERCISE 27. 
A. 

Substitute terms of correct signification for the italicized 
words : 

1. A child is educated in the grammar of a language, and instructed to speak 

it correctly. 

2. He spoke most contemptibly of the man. 

3. The veracity of the statement was called in question. 

4. His apparent guilt justified his friends in disowning him. 

5. I do not want any cranberries. 

6. By the observance of the habits of the lower animals we may learn many 

interesting facts. 

7. I have persuaded him that he is wrong. 

B. 

In the following sentences correct the wrongly used par- 
ticles : 

1. Poetry has the same aim with Christianity. 

2. Scarcely had he uttered the fatal word, than the fairy disappeared. 

3. We should always be ready to assist such poor persons who are unable 

to obtain a livelihood. 

4. I find great difficulty of writing now. 

5. The Italian universities were forced to send for their professors from 

Spain and France. 

6. He drew a different conclusion from the subject than I did. 

7. Favors are not always bestowed to the most deserving. 



ON STYLE. 



59 



MISUSED WORDS. 

49. There are in current use many words employed in a 
Bense that does not properly belong to them. A few of 
these are here given : they should be carefully noted, and 
their misuse avoided. 

aggravate for irritate : as, " He aggravates me by his impudence." 

allude for refer. To allude means to hint at in an indirect way. 

balance for remainder; as, "The balance of the people went home." 

calculate for design or intend, or as an equivalent to likely, apt: as 

"Sensational newspapers are calculated to injure the 
morals of the young;" they are not " calculated " to do 
so ; but they are certainly likely to do so. 
couple for two: as, " A couple of ladies fell upon the ice yester- 
day." A " couple " means properly two that are coupled. 

demean for debase: as, "I would not demean myself by doing so." 

To " demean" means to behave in any way, and has no 
connection with the term mean. 

emblem for motto, sentiment, or meaning: generally applied to 

flowers. " The emblem of this flower is, " / live for thee." 
In this case the flower itself is the emblem: "I live for 
thee " is the meaning given to it. 

expect for suppose, or think: as, "I eapect you had a pretty hard 

time of it yesterday;" for I suppose or I think you had, etc. 
Expect refers ohfy to that which is to come, 
inaugurate.... for begin, or set up. To inaugurate is to induct into office 
with solemn ceremonies ; thus we speak of the President's 
being inaugurated. But we cannot " inaugurate" a thing. 
married often wrongly used in announcements: as, "Married- 
John Smith to Mary Jones." It should be, "Mary Jones 
to John Smith," as, properly speaking, it is the woman 
that is married (French marl, a husband) to a man. 

nam e for mention: as, "I never named the matter to any one." 

predicated.... for founded, or based: as, "This opinion is predicated on 
the plainest teachings of common-sense," meaning founded 
on, etc. 



60 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

witness for see: as, "This is the most splendid bay I ever wit- 
nessed." We may witness an act at the performance of 
which we are present, but we cannot witness a thing. 



50. Second Requisite.— Simplicity of Words. 

We should ordinarily avoid all such words as require per* 
sons to consult a dictionary, provided simpler and easier 
words can be found to express the meaning. We should 
also avoid pompous expressions and high-flown words and 
phrases, because the use of these is always a sign either of 
half -learning or of vulgar taste. 

It is well to remember that large words will not increase the size 
of little thoughts. 

STILTED EXPRESSIONS FOUND IN MANY MEANING IN PLAIN ENGLISH. 

NEWSPAPERS. 

A disastrous conflagration com- . . n , . 

° = A great fire broke out. 

menced to rage 

A vast concourse of citizens as- 
sembled to behold the spec- — A great crowd came to see. 
tacle 

The conflagration extended its _ The fae _ 

devastating career 

The progress of the devouring _ checked. 

, , , -, . , , T X lie ill C I/UUIU 11UL UC L/ilt/^ixCU.. 

element could not be arrested 

One of those omnipresent charac- 
ters who, as if in pursuance of 

some previous arrangement, are — A bystander advised, 
certain to be encountered when 
an accident occurs, ventured 
the suggestion 

However, the edifice was totally 
consumed, notwithstanding the = But the house was burned to the 
most energetic efforts of those ground, in spite of all that the 

noble men who, on such occa- firemen could do.* 

sions, rush to the call of duty 

* Bonnell : Manual of Composition. 



ON STYLE. 61 



EXERCISE 28. 

Translate the following into simple, natural English : 

1. An individual was precipitated 

2. They called into requisition the services of the physician 

3. His spirit quitted its earthly habitation 

4. There are some youthful personages whom it always delights you to 

accompany. 

5. There are others, the very aspect of whose facial features superinduces 

disagreeable emotions. 

6. Mary was the possessor of a diminutive specimen of the sheep species. 

7. Your uncle was evidently laboring under some hallucination. 

8. At the present moment I retire to slumber: I offer up my petitions to 

the Lord to preserve my spiritual part in safety ; but should I quit 
this earthly sphere ere I awake, I beseech him to receive my soul. 

9. Ceteris paribus, when a Saxon and a Latin word offer themselves, we 

should choose the Saxon. 



51. Third Eequisite.— Conciseness, or brevity of lan- 
guage. 

Conciseness consists in using the smallest number of 
words necessary for tlie complete expression of a thought — - 
the maximum of thought in the minimum of words. 

The following will be<found a useful general rule: Go critically 
over what you have written, and strike out every word, phrase, 
and clause the omission of which impairs neither the clearness 
nor the force of the sentence. 

52. This requisite of good writing is violated in three 
ways: 

1. By redundancy, or the use of words which the sense 
does not require. Thus — 

1. Every man on the face of the earth has duties to perform. 

The italicized phrase is superfluous, as " every man" that has " duties to 
perform" may safely be supposed to be " on the face of the earth." 



62 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

2. He appears to enjoy the universal esteem of all men. 

The "esteem of all men" is universal esteem; hence the adjective is un- 
necessary. 

2. By tautology, or the repetition of the same idea in 
different words: Thus — 

The whole nation applauded his magnanimity and greatness of 
mind, 

M Greatness of mind" is simply a translation of "magnanimity;" hence 
the one or the other of the expressions is unnecessary. The repetition of the 
idea not only adds nothing to the thought, but it also detracts from the 
clearness. 

3. By circumlocution, or a roundabout, diffuse way of 
expressing a thought. 

Example. — Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dry- 
den, whom, whenever an opportunity presented itself, he praised 
through the whole period of his existence with a liberality which 
never varied; and perhaps his character may receive some illus- 
tration, if a comparison be instituted between him and the man 
whose pupil he was. 

Which may be thus condensed : 

Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom, on every oppor- 
tunity, he praised through his whole life with unvaried liberality ; 
and perhaps his character may be illustrated by comparing him 
with his master. 

Obs. — The remedy for circumlocution consists, not in leaving out parts, 
but in recasting the whole in terser language. It may be observed that in the 
remodelling of the sentence just given the condensation has been effected 
mainly by the substitution of phrases for clauses. Thus, "whenever an op- 
portunity presented itself" =on every opportunity ; "which never varied " = 
unvaried; " if a comparison be instituted "=by comparing, etc. 



EXERCISE 29. 
A. 

Remove the redundancies in these sentences : 

1. Another old veteran has departed. 

2. Thought and language act and react mutually upon each other. 

3. Emma writes very well for a new beginner. 



ON STYLE. (53 

4. The time for learning is in the period of youth. 

5. Whenever I call, he always inquires for you. 

6. The ocean is the great reservoir for receiving the waters of rivers. 

7. The world is fitly compared to a stage, and its inhabitants to the actors 

who perform their parts. 

8. I go ; but I return again. 

9. The Egyptians used to use myrrh, spices, and nitre for embalming the 

dead bodies of the deceased. 

B. 

"Remove the tautological expressions : 

1. I will give you my advice and counsel gratis, and charge you nothing. 

2. It was on a calm and tranquil night that we sailed down the river. 

3. Our intercourse was always and invariably friendly and amicable until 

he married and became the husband of a wife. 

4. I think Joseph must take especial and particular pains with his writing. 

5. There is a simple and easy way of dealing with such chances and acci- 

dents. 

6. Hence he must necessarily, therefore, be in error. 

7. The effects and consequence of such corruption and degeneracy are 

deplorable and lamentable. 

8. Thought and expression act and react upon each other mutually. 



53. Fourth Eeqtjisite.— Purity of Words, 

This quality requires that the words we employ shall be 
good, reputable English. It does not mean that we are pro- 
hibited from using familiar or colloquial forms of expres- 
sion ; but only that we shall avoid slang. 

The pupil should aim at purity of language, without being a 
purist in language, that is, one who affects excessive nicety in 
the choice of words. 



II. Construction. 

54. As regards the arrangement of its parts, there are 
three qualities which a sentence should possess: 1. Unity; 
2. Clearness: 3. Strength 



64 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

I. UNITY. 

55 1 Unity is that property in a sentence which keeps all 
its parts in connection with, and logically subordinate to, 
the principal thought. 

56. The rules for preserving the unity of a sentence are 

as follows : 

Eule L— The subject should be changed as little as possible in the 
course of the sentence, 

There is commonly, in every sentence, the name of some person or 
thing which is the prominent subject of discourse; this should 
be continued, if possible, from the beginning to the end of the 
proposition. The following will illustrate : 
After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was wel- 
comed by all my friends, who received me with the greatest 
kindness. 

Criticism. — Here, from the repeated changing of the subject ("we," "I," 
" they," " who"), the sense of connection is almost lost. Alter thus, so as to 
preserve the same subject or principal word throughout, and thereby the unity 
of the sentence: "After we came to anchor, I was put on shore, where I was 
welcomed by all my friends, and received with the greatest kindness." 

Rule II.— Ideas that have but little connection should be expressed in 
separate sentences, and not crowded into one. 

The great danger of violating this rule is in writing long com- 
pound sentences. In a simple sentence unity is secured by its 
very form, and in the complex sentence it is not difficult to 
preserve this quality. But the compound sentence contains 
two, and may contain many principal propositions, and hence 
the liability to crowding. If there be a close logical connec- 
tion between the propositions, they should be united into one 
compound sentence ; but if there be no inherent connection, 
the propositions should be stated as separate sentences. 

Example. — The Britons, daily harassed by the Picts, were forced 
to call in the Saxons for their defence, who, after having re- 
pelled the invaders, turned their arms against the Britons them- 
selves, drove them into the most remote and mountainous parts 



ON STYLE. 65 

of the kingdom, and reduced the greater part of the island 
under their dominion, so that in the course of a century and a 
half the country became almost wholly Saxon in customs, re* 
ligion, and language. 

Criticism. — In this sentence different events and facts without any close 
connection are grouped together in such a way as to produce a very confused 
impression. It should be broken up into at least three sentences, thus : " The 
Britons, daily harassed by the Picts,were forced to call in the Saxons for their 
defence. These, after having repelled the invaders, turned their arms against 
the Britons themselves, driving them into the most remote and mountainous 
parts of the kingdom, and reducing the greater part of the island under their 
dominion. The result was that, in the course of a century and a half, the 
country became almost wholly Saxon in customs, religion, and language," 

Rule III.— Long parentheses in the middle of a sentence should be 
avoided, as interfering with unity of expression. 

Example. — The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria (which 
were discovered in 1797. by a peasant, who, catching some 
water from a spring, found the tub so heavy that he could not 
move it, and the bottom covered with a shining substance 
which turned out to be mercury), yield, every year, over three 
hundred thousand pounds of that valuable metal. 

Criticism.— Every pupil will readily see how destructive to unity is the 
long parenthesis. To remedy the fault, remove the matter from the parenthe- 
sis, and make it a separate sentence. 



EXERCISE 30. 

A. 

Reconstruct the following sentences, so as to attain unity 
of subject : 

1. The march of the Greeks was through an uncultivated country, whose 

savage inhabitants fared hardly, having no other riches than a breed 
of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavory, by reason of their 
continual feeding upon sea-fish. 

2. In summer the reindeer feed on various kinds of plants, and seek the 

highest hills to avoid the gadfly, which at that period deposits its 
eggs in their skin, from which cause many of them die. 



66 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

Improve the following sentences by removing the con- 
nectives, and breaking up each sentence into two or more 
distinct propositions : 

1. There are a great many different kinds of trees, some furnishing us with 

wood for common purposes, such as flooring for our houses and 
frames for the windows ; while others afford a more beautiful wood, 
which, when polished, is made into tables and chairs, and various ar- 
ticles of furniture. 

2. At last the coach stopped, and the driver, opening the door, told us to 

get out; which we did, and found ourselves in front of a large tavern, 
whose bright and ruddy windows told of the blazing fires within ; 
which, together with the kind welcome of the hostess, and the boun- 
teous supper that smoked upon the board, soon made us forget the 
hardships of the long, cold ride. 

3. This great and good man died on the 17th of September, 1683, leaving 

behind him the memory of many noble actions, and a numerous fam- 
ily, of whom three were sons ; one of them George, the eldest, heir to 
his father's virtues, as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland, 
where most of his father's property was situate, and shortly afterwards 
elected member for the county, which had for several generations re- 
turned this family to serve in Parliament. 



II— CLEARNESS. 

57. Clearness requires that the parts of a sentence — 
words, phrases, clauses — should be so arranged as to leave 
no possibility of doubt as to the writer's meaning. 

Clearness of style should be the first consideration with the young 
composer. It may indeed seem that several of the rules for 
brevity interfere with the rules for clearness. But it is better, 
at all events for beginners, to aim not so much at being brief ot 
forcible, as at being perspicuous. 

58. The faults opposed to clearness are two: 

1. Obscurity, which leaves us wholly in doubt as to what 
the meaning is. 



ON STYLE. 67 

2. Ambiguity, which leaves us in doubt as to which of 
two or more meanings is the one intended. 

59. It is chiefly through the wrong placing of words, 
phrases, or clauses that clearness is lost. .In the English 
language, which is very deficient in inflections to mark the 
grammatical relations of words, position is a matter of prime 
importance. 

Rule I.— Words, phrases, and clauses that are closely related should 
be placed as near to each other as possible, that their mutual relation may 
clearly appear. Thus— 

1. Rome once more ruled over the prostrate nations ~by the power 

of superstition. 

Criticism. — This sentence is ambiguous, because it may mean, (1) that Rome 
had at a former time ruled over the nations "by the power of superstition, M 
and now ruled over them a second time by the same power; (2) that she had 
formerly ruled over them by some other power, and now did so " by the power 
of superstition." The latter meaning is probably the one intended, and to 
bring this out the sentence should be arranged as follows: "Rome, by the 
power of superstition, once more ruled over the prostrate nations." 

2. The following lines were written by one who, for more than ten 

years, had been confined in the penitentiary, for his own 

diversion. 

Criticism.— The long confinement did not bring much grammatical clear- 
ness to the writer. As the sentence stands, it states that he was confined in the 
penitentiary "for his own diversion," which is not a promising form of amuse- 
ment. 

60. Obscurity and ambiguity frequently arise from the 
omission of some necessary word. Hence the following di- 
rections should be observed : 

Rule II. — The subject should be repeated when its omission would 
cause ambiguity or obscurity. 

The ellipsis of the subject is particularly likely to cause obscurity 
when a relative clause intervenes. Thus, " He professes to be 
helping the nation, which in reality is suffering from his flat- 
tery, and [he ? or it f] will not permit any one else to give it ad- 
vice." 



68 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

Rule III.— A preposition should be repeated after an intervening 
conjunction, especially if a verb and an object also intervene. Thus— 

He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped all his 
companions when he was poor and uninfluential, and (to) John 
Smith in particular. 

Criticism. — Here omit to, and the meaning may be "that helped all his 
companions, and John Smith in particular." The intervention of the verb and 
object, "helped" and "companions," causes this ambiguity. 

61, A verb should be repeated after the conjunctions 
"than," "as," etc., when the omission would cause ambi- 
guity. Thus — 

I think he likes me better than you ; i. e., either than you like me 
or he likes you. 



EXERCISE 31. 

A. 

In the following sentences, place the italicized words in 
such positions as will make the real meaning clear : 

1. The dexterity of the Chinese juggler almost appears miraculous. 

2. A tear is due, at least, to the fallen brave. 

3. They laid the blame only on us. 

4. We also get salt from the ocean, which is very useful to man. 

5. It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life by 

heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against. 

6. There is a cavern in the island of Hoonga, which can only be entered by 

diving into the sea. 

7. They seemed to be nearly dressed alike. 

8. Charlemagne patronized not only learned men, but also established sev- 

eral educational institutions. 

B. 

These sentences are inaccurate, owing to the improper 
omission of certain terms; supply the ellipsis: 

1. The rich are exposed to many dangers which the poor are not. 

2. The covering of animals in cold countries is thicker than warm 

ones. 



ON STYLE. 69 

3. He might have been happy, and is now fully convinced of it. 

4. Industry has always been the way to succeed, and it will so long 

as men are what they are. 

5. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so than knowledge. 

6. Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as the Spaniard 

Olivares. 



Ill— STRENGTH. 

62, Strength is that property of style which causes a 
sentence to produce a forcible and vivid impression. 

63, The first requisite for attaining strength is that the 
most important words shall occupy the most prominent 
places. These are the beginning and the end of the sentence. 

64, As the end of a sentence is one of the two emphatic 
places, it is a good general rule not to terminate a sentence 
with an adverb, preposition, or other particle. Thus — 

1. What a pity it is that even the best should speak to our under- 

standings so seldom ! 

Here the adverb usurps the prominent place, which properly belongs to 
" understandings." The sentence would be stronger thus : " should so seldom 
speak to our understandings." 

2. Let us consider the ambitious ; and those both in their progress 

to greatness and after the attaining of it. 

This is both weak and inelegant. Say either " after attaining it," or "after 
its attainment." 

65, Many of the methods of changing a sentence that 
have already been treated of under " Variety of Expression " 
add force and emphasis to a sentence. Thus — 

By inversion: as, " Silver and gold have I none" (instead of, "I 

have no silver and gold"). 
By interrogation : as, " Who does not hope to live long ?" (instead 

of, "We all hope to live long"). 
By exclamation : as, " What a piece of work is man !" (instead o£ 

" Man is a wonderful piece of work "). 



70 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

66. It often adds strength to a sentence to put it into 
the form of a period. 

A period is a sentence in which the complete sense is sus- 
pended until the close. It is contrasted with a loose sentence, 
in which the predicate is followed by phrases or clauses that 
are not necessary to the completeness of the sense. Thus— 

Period. — On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles and priests, 

the Puritans looked down with contempt. 
Loose Sentence. — The Puritans looked down with contempt on 

the rich | and the eloquent, | on nobles | and priests. 

The latter is a loose sentence, because we might pause at any of the places 
marked. Note the superior force of the periodic arrangement. 

67. A statement is stronger when made about an indi- 
vidual object than when made about a class. Thus : " What 
is the splendor of the greatest monarch compared with the 
beauty of a flower ?" is less forcible than, " What is the 
splendor of Solomon compared with the beauty of a daisy ?" 

68. A sentence is enfeebled by improper repetition of a 
word, or by the recurrence of unpleasing similarity of sound. 
Thus— 

1. The few who regarded them in their true light were regarded as 

dreamers. 
The repetition of the word regarded has a very unpleasant effect. 

2. In a calm moonlight night the sea is a most beautiful object to 

see. 
The recurrence of sound (sea and see) is disagreeable to the ear. 

This principle does not apply to a repetition made for some sound 
rhetorical reason: on the contrary, such repetition often adds 
great strength to a sentence. Thus — 

1. He aspired to the highest — above the people, above the authorities, 

above the laws, above his country. 

2. The spirit of religion and the spirit of chivalry concurred to exalt 

his dignity. 



ON STYLE. fj\ 

Si By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed, 
By foreign hands thy decent limbs composed, 
By foreign hands thy humble grave adorned, 
By strangers honored, and by strangers mourned. 

69. The excessive use of adjectives — a fault to which 
young writers are addicted — is very enfeebling to style. 
Hence the following rule : Never use an adjective unless 
its meaning adds to the main thought of the sentence. 



EXERCISE 32. 
A. 

Give strength to the following sentences by improving 

the position of the italicized words : 

1. Such things were not allowed formerly. 

2. It was a practice which no one knew the origin of. 

3. My purpose is to bring the fact that I have stated into prominence. 

4. Internal commerce has been greatly increased since the introduction 

into the country of railroads. 

5. Scott is an author whom every one is delighted with. 

6. But the design succeeded ; he betrayed the city, and was made governor 

of it. 

B. 

Change the following loose sentences into periods : 

1. Nothing is valuable in speech farther than it is connected with high in- 

tellectual and moral endowments when public bodies are to be ad- 
dressed on momentous occasions, when great interests are at stake, 
and strong passions excited. 

2. We came to our journey's end, at last, with no small difficulty, after 

much fatigue, through deep roads and bad weather. 

3. The wonderful invention of Homer is what principally strikes us, on 

whatever side we contemplate him. 

4. The live thunder leaps far along from peak to peak, among the rattling 

crags. 
6. Heavenly Muse, that on the secret top of Horeb or of Sinai didst inspire 
that Shepherd who first taught the chosen seed, in the beginning, 
how the heavens and earth rose out of chaos, sing of man's first dis- 
obedience and the fruit of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste 
brought death into the world and all our woe, with loss of Eden, till 
one greater man restore us, and regain the blissful seat. 



^2 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 






III. Figures of Language. 

70 i One of the principal means for adding both strength 
and beauty to a sentence is the use of figures of speech. 

71 1 Definition. — Figures of speech are certain modes of 
expression different from those of ordinary speech. A 
word used figuratively is a word used in a sense suggested 
by the imagination. 

The four figures of speech most used are — 

1. Simile. 2. Metaphor. 3. Metonymy. 4. Synecdoche. 

72, Simile and metaphor both express comparison. In 
the simile, one object is said to resemble another ; and some 
sign of comparison (as, like, etc.) stands between them. In 
the metaphor, an object is spoken of as if it were another, 
and no sign of comparison is used. A metaphor is an im- 
plied simile. Thus — 

1. Simile. — The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. 
Metaphok. — The Assyrian m>Z/*came down on the fold. 

2. Simile. — He is like a lion in the fight. 
Metaphor. — He is a lion in the fight. 

73. Metonymy is the use of the name of one object to rep- 
resent some related object, when the relation is not mere re- 
semblance. In this figure correlative terms are interchanged. 

1. The effect is sometimes put for the cause : as, Gray hairs [mean- 
ing old age] should be respected. 

2. The thing containing is put for the thing contained : as, He 
drank the fatal cup [meaning the draught in the cup]. 

3. The sign is put for the thing signified : as, The sceptre [meaning 
sovereignty] shall not depart from Judah. 

4. The author is put for his writings: as, Have you read Milton? 
[meaning Milton's works]. 



ON STYLE. 73 

74. Synecdoche is the figure which puts a part for the 
whole: as, " Consider the lilies [that is, flowers in general] 
how they grow." 



EXERCISE 33. 
A. 

Underline the words expressing simile: 

1. Keep me as the apple of thine eye. 

2. Grateful persons resemble fertile fields. 

3. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden overflow ,• 

Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a constant stream. 

4. My doctrine shall drop as the rain, my speech shall distil as the dew, 

as the small rain upon the tender herb, as the dew upon the grass. 

5. The broad circumference (of the shield) hung on his shoulders like the 

moon. 

6. Black were her eyes as the berry that grows on the thorn by the wayside. 

B. 

Compare the following pairs of objects respectively, show- 
ing their points of resemblance : 

1. Food and books. 

2. The troubles of a child and an April shower. 

3. Life and a battle. 

4. Prosperity and sunshine. 

5. Heaven and home. \ 

c. 

Transpose the following metaphoric expressions into the 
plain form : 

Example.— He bore away the palm. 
Changed.— He obtained the prize. 

1. He bore away the palm. 

2. The clouds of adversity soon pass away. 

3. Virtue is a jewel. 

4. Choate was one of the brightest luminaries of the age. 

5. She shed a flood of tears. 

6. Though his couch was the wayside and his pillow a stone, he slept 

sound till morning. 

7. There is a blush on the cheek of night. 



74 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

D. 

Underline the metonymies, and then change the figures 
into plain language : 

Flee from the bottle = Avoid intoxicating drinks. 

1. Flee from the bottle. 

2. Have you read Irving ? 

3. The country was wasted by the sword. 

4. The stranger praised the eloquence of our pulpit, bar, and senate. 

5. He has a long purse. 

6. Death knocks alike at the palace and the cottage. 

E. 

Underline the synecdoches, and then convert them into 
plain language : 

There are fifty sail in the harbor = There are fifty ships in the harbor. 

1. There are fifty sail in the harbor. 

2. All hands take hold. 

3. Give us this day our daily bread. 

4. The face of the deep is frozen over. 

5. My roof shall always shelter you. 

F. 

Tell the kind of figure exemplified in each of the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. The sun of liberty is set ; we must now light the candles of industry and 

economy. 

2. Trade, like a restive horse, is not easily managed. 

3. Father, thy hand 

Hath reared these venerable columns; thou 
Didst weave this verdant roof. 

4. Am I a soldier of the cross ? 

5. The pen is mightier than the sword. 

6. Pitt was the pilot who guided the ship of state through a stormy sea. 

7. The barge she sat in, like a burnished throne, 
Burned in the water; the poop was beaten gold. 

8. All flesh is grass, and all its glory fades 
Like the fair flower dishevelled in the wind. 

9. Like a tempest down the ridges 
Swept the hurricane of steel. 

10. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

11. Who steals my purse steals trash. 

12. The hedges are white with May. 



THEMES AND ESSAYS. 75 

CHAPTER VII. 

THEMES AND ESSAYS. 

75 1 A theme is an exercise in which the subject is treat- 
ed according to a set of heads methodically arranged. In 
this respect it differs from the essay, wherein the writer is 
at liberty to follow his own inclination as to the arrange- 
ment of his ideas. 

' For a systematic exhibit of the Rules of Punctuation, see 'page 97. 



I. The Structure of Paragraphs. 

76. A paragraph is a connected series of sentences relat- 
ing to the same subject and forming a constituent part of a 
composition. 

A composition of any length — even a letter (unless the very brief- 
est note)— requires a division into paragraphs in order to please 
the eye and to render the relation of its parts readily intel- 
ligible. 

77. There are three Qualities to be aimed at in the con- 
struction of paragraphs, namely : I. Unity ; II. Continuity ; 
III. Variety. 

78. Unity. — In order that a paragraph shall possess the 
quality of unity, it is requisite that the sentences composing 
it shall relate, each and all, to one definite division of the 
subject which they illustrate and explain. 

A mere collocation of sentences, without a central thought, is desti- 
tute of the essential element of a paragraph, just as a sentence 
made up of several heterogeneous ideas is properly no sentence 
at all. 



76 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

79. Continuity. — In order that a paragraph shall possess 
the quality of continuity, it is requisite that the sentences 
be so stated and arranged as to carry the line of thought 
naturally and suggestively from one to the other. 

The coherence of the constituent elements of a paragraph is an es- 
sential quality. To this end free use should be made of what 
have been called continuative particles and phrases : as, however, 
moreover, indeed, thus, consequently, at the same time, in like 
manner, etc. 

80. Variety. — In order that a paragraph shall possess the 
quality of variety, it is requisite that the constituent sen- 
tences shall differ both in length and in structure. 

I. German writers generally tend to long and involved sentences. 
French authors, on the other hand, usually write in brief, com- 
pact sentences {style coupe). English style admits both forms, 
and the most effective writing requires a combination of the 
two — the brief sentences for clearness and force, the ampler 
periods for dignity and impressiveness. 

II. " It will be found to be of advantage," says Dalgleish, " to 
make the sentences at the beginning of the paragraph brief. 
The attention of the reader is thus arrested at the outset, with- 
out being subjected to any unnecessary strain. A longer sen- 
tence than usual, gathering up the various threads of thought, 
has its appropriate place at the close-" 

81. The three qualities of a well-constructed paragraph 
are exemplified in the following from Addison and Macau- 
lay: 

I. Fbom Addison. 

(The theme): A man of polite imagination is let into a great 
many pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving. 
{First illustration) : He can converse with a picture, and find 
an agreeable companion in a statue. {Second illustration) : He 
meets with a secret refreshment in a description, and often feels 
a greater satisfaction in the prospect of fields and meadows than 
another does in the possession of them. {Third illustration* 



THEMES AND ESSAYS. 77 

partly repetitionary) : It gives him a kind of property in every- 
thing he sees, and makes the most rude, uncultivated parts of 
nature administer to his pleasures. (The theme repeated): So 
that he looks on the world in another light, and discovers in it 
a multitude of charms that conceal themselves from the gen- 
erality of mankind. — Pleasures of Imagination. 

II. From Macaulay. 

It is by his essays that Bacon is best known to the multitude. 
The Novum Organum and the Be Augmentis are much talked of, 
but little read. They have produced, indeed, a vast effect upon 
the opinions of mankind; but they have produced it through 
the operation of intermediate agents. They have moved the in- 
tellects which have moved the world. It is in the essays alone 
that the mind of Bacon is brought into immediate contact with 
the minds of ordinary readers. There he opens an exoteric 
school, and talks to plain men in language which everybody un- 
derstands, about things in which everybody is interested. He 
has thus enabled those who must otherwise have taken his merits 
on trust to judge for themselves; and the great body of readers 
have, during several generations, acknowledged that the man 
who has treated with such consummate ability questions with 
which they are familiar, may well be supposed to deserve all the 
praise bestowed on him by those who have sat in the inner 
school. — Essay on Bacon. 



II. Themes. 

FIRST METHOD. 

I. Introduction : Make a few preliminary remarks appli- 
cable to the subject. 

II. Definition : State the subject distinctly, and, if nec- 
essary, explain it by a formal definition, a paraphrase, or a 
description. 

III. Origin: Explain the origin of the subject, or state 
the principles upon which its origin may be accounted for. 



78 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

IV. Progress : Give an account of the development of 
the subject from its origin to the present time. 

V. Present Condition : Describe the subject as it is now 
in operation. 

VI. Effects : Show the influence of the subject upon 
society, and the relation in which it stands to kindred sub 
jects. 

VII. Conclusion : Conclude with such remarks, or reflec- 
tions, apposite to the subject, as could not have been con- 
veniently introduced under any of the previous heads. 

Write themes on the following subjects : 

1. The Art of Printing : 

Introduction. — Necessity for diffusion of knowledge — means foi 
this end in ancient times — their inefficiency — our great means. 

Definition. — Printing — what it is. 

Origin. — First attempts in the art — their deficiency — the inventor 
of modern printing — story of Faust and Gutenberg — first printed 
book. 

Progress. — Its introduction into England — into America — appli- 
cation of steam to printing. 

Present Condition. — Extent to which printing is now applied. 

Effects. — Effects of this invention on the condition of the world 
as regards knowledge and the moral improvement of men. 

Conclusion. — God said, "Let there be light, and there was light" 
—so printing diffuses, etc. 

2. Agriculture :* 

The various sources of subsistence which God has put in man's 
power — agriculture — what is meant by it — its antiquity — 
Scripture proof— how it has been estimated by various nations 
— its progress not so rapid as that of sonic other arts— war its 
special enemy its present advanced position — effects on the 
condition of man shown by considering his state without it — 



* Pupils should be required to arrange the points under the various heads 
as set forth in the First Method. 






THEMES AND ESSAYS. f9 

its connection with civilization — real dignity and independence 
of the farmer's life. 

3. Newspapers : 

One of the many advantages of printing — newspapers as a branch 
of the periodical press — date, country, and circumstances of 
their origin — feeling that gave them birth— what contributed 
to their spread — introduction into the United States — their 
present universality — process of printing newspapers — illustrate 
by a newspaper in your town— their effects — contributions to 
freedom, justice, humanity, the promotion of general intelligence 
— influence on literary taste — possible abuse of their influence — 
advantages derived from reading newspapers — different position 
of the ancients and moderns in this respect — duty of a modern 
citizen with regard to them. 

4. The Telescope : 

Feebleness of our senses compared with the extent of the universe 
around us — value of any invention that extends their range — 
the telescope — what it is — how it acts — its different parts — 
author of the invention— defects of the first telescope — causes — 
by what successive improvements removed — authors of these 
improvements — the two most famous telescopes — the one of the 
last century — what it achieved — the other — difficulties of its 
construction — its achievements — uses of the telescope for astro- 
nomical and nautical purposes — illustrate both — general exten- 
sion of our knowledge of the system of the universe — enlarged 
ideas of the CreatorN 

5. Music : 

Meaning of the term, and the considerations involved in it — its 
first development in melody — what are the two constituents of 
this — show that they are implanted in our nature, and manifest 
themselves spontaneously — music, then, as the expression of 
feeling, has its foundation in the constitution of our nature — 
what is harmony — belongs to an advanced stage of musical cul- 
tivation — different kinds of music — its antiquity naturally to be 
inferred — earliest record of it — chief musical nations of antiqui- 
ty — Hebrew music — Greek music — with what intimately con- 
nected — extent of our knowledge of ancient music — early use 
of music. 



SO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

SECOND METHOD. 

L Introduction : Make a few preliminary remarks appli- 
cable to the subject. 

II. Definition : State the object distinctly, and, if neces* 
sary, explain it by a formal definition or a description. 

III. Nature : Give such an account of the subject as may 
serve to determine its character. 

IV. Operation and Effects : How the subject is man- 
ifested, and in what manner it affects the individual or 
society. 

V. Examples : Adduce examples in illustration of the 
subject. 

VI. Application : Show what our duty is with reference 
to the subject, and how we may profit by an examination 
of it. 

1. Friendship: 

Instinctive aversion of our nature to solitude and its associations 
— the mere presence of our fellow-men gives cheerfulness — how 
much more friendship — what is true friendship, and what is in- 
cluded in it — acquaintance not friendship — distinguish it from 
its counterfeits — its characteristics — it is rare, like everything 
of true value — it is limited in its objects, i. e., we cannot have a 
great many true friends — it is unselfish — its effects — it largely 
contributes to the happiness of the world by the sympathy and 
aid which it offers — reference to this in Scripture — it purifies 
and elevates the nature of him who cherishes it — ardor which 
may pervade it — example from history : David and Jonathan, 
Damon and Pythias, Achilles and Patroclus, Douglas and Ran- 
dolph, Wallace and Graham — application — advantage of culti- 
vating it — necessity of caution in selecting friends, from its great 
influence on our character and prospects — constancy in friend- 
ship when once entered into. 

2. Ambition: 

Some of the passions commonly condemned are implanted in man 
for good ends — mention instances, and show their propriety — 



THEMES AND ESSAYS. 81 

ambition one of these — not necessarily bad — define it in its good 
sense — the end it seeks to attain — the means it will employ- 
its beneficial operation, both on the subject of it, as involving 
the exertion and expansion of his faculties, and as raising him 
to a higher sphere of influence and happiness — and on mankind 
as experiencing the happy results of all this — extent of its bene- 
fits from the universality of its operation — every man in every 
occupation who has raised himself to eminence an example of 
it — ambition in its bad sense — its characteristics; for example, 
its exclusiveness and consequent inhumanity — its unscrupulous* 
ness, insatiableness — show how these necessarily spring out of 
it — its effects — makes the subject of it the unhappy prey of con- 
tending passions, and withdraws him from the true end of his 
being — its effects on the world — endless misery, mental, moral, 
and physical — examples from civil and ecclesiastical history — 
Caesar, Alexander, Pyrrhus, Sextus V., Wolsey, Henry VIII. — the 
hollowness of its attainments often reluctantly testified to by 
conscience — anecdotes of Napoleon — practical inferences from 
the foregoing. 



III. Essays. 
"Write essays from the following outlines : 
On Cruelty to Animals: 

a. The obligations ofman to the lower animals — the ingratitude 
of maltreating his benefactors. 

b. The goodness of God in providing these animals for our use, 
and in giving man "dominion over them" — the injustice or 
immorality of abusing God's gifts, and of violating the trust 
which that " dominion " implies. 

c. The duty of caring for the helpless, of being kind to the dumb 
— the cowardice of taking advantage of their helplessness and 
inability to plead their own cause. 

d. The hardening effect upon the heart and affections of systematic 
ill-treatment of dumb animals — the intelligence that can be de- 
veloped in them — the pleasure derivable from their companion- 
ship — the fidelity and love with which they are capable of re- 
warding their benefactors. 



82 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



2. On Foreign Travel: 

a. Solitude often produces selfishness — men's sympathies expand 
the more the more they mix with their fellows — the men of a 
small circle and limited experience are narrowest and most 
bigoted in their views. 

b. Men who know no country but their own are apt to be filled 
with national prejudices, to underrate other countries — travel 
removes those prejudices, expands the intellect, increases our 
knowledge of men and things, shows us nature and art under 
different circumstances, makes us less vain, and more charitable. 

8. A Summer Morning: 

a. Pleasure of being alone with nature — in early morning the bustle 
of the day's work does not yet distract us — only so much of 
human activity as to lead to meditation instead of disturbing it. 

b. Beauty of the scene on a fine summer morning — clear atmos- 
phere — familiar scenes appear in a new light — dewy fragrance 
of flowers and leaves — music of birds — (name some in illustra- 
tion). 

c. Ample reason for the common belief that it is good to be up 
betimes — morning air fresh and exhilarating — after night's re- 
pose the temper is calm and unruffled — disposed for cheerful 
contemplation — a wholesome introduction to the work of the 
day. 

d. Such pleasure may be commended with all confidence — its ex- 
perience not attended with loss or regret — on the contrary, 
leaves no impressions but such as are healthful and gratifying. 

4. A Taste for Beading : 

a. Variety of work requires variety of recreation — contrast the 
cases of mental and of manual labor — one resource always 
available is the taste for reading. 

b. Eminently a rational recreation — furnishes the mind with sub- 
stantial ideas and eloquent images — drives away listlessness — 
excludes temptation — lightens labor. 

c. Reading not only gives occupation, but introduces a man into 
the choicest friendships — the wisest, the best, and the worthiest 
of all time : this society is ennobling. 

d. All may find in reading something to suit their taste — instruc- 
tion, incident, adventure, scenes from nature and from human 






THEMES AND ESSAYS. 83 

life — to increase the store of knowledge, stimulate imagination, 

purify the sentiments. 
e. A source of happiness to others as well as to one's self — 

prompts and enriches conversation. 
/. What a great French writer (Montesquieu) has said, "He had 

never known any cares that were not lightened by an hour's 

reading " — experience of all who have the taste. 

5. On the Advantages of a Good Education: 

a. Men of " education" in its limited or school sense — its more en- 
larged meaning : the development of all our faculties, and the 
formation of character. 

b. Fortune may be left to us by our parents or relatives ; but edu- 
cation must be acquired by ourselves, or we must lack it forever 
—fortune may be acquired at an advanced time of life ; if educa- 
tion is neglected in youth, almost impossible to make it up. 

c. Education to be gained by work — anecdote : when Dionysius, 
the tyrant of Syracuse, wanted Archimedes to instruct him in 
geometry by an easier method than common, the philosopher 
replied, " I know of no royal road to geometry." 

d. It is to education that men owe the superiority they have over 
their fellow-creatures, more than to any advantages of nature — 
many persons would have risen high, had they been educated — 
fine illustration from Gray's Elegy : 

But knowledge to their eyes her ample page, 
Rich with the spoils of time, did ne'er unroll: 

Chill penury repress' d their noble rage, 
And froze the genial current of the souL 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 

The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear: 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

6. On Method in Dadly Life : 

a. Enables us to do more work, and better work in less time. 

b. The proper division of time will do for the individual what the 
division of labor does for the community. 

a Much time is wasted in thinking what we are to do next ; much 
by not taking our duties in a proper succession (illustration), as 
if a letter-carrier were to take out his letters in a general heap, 
and deliver them just as the addresses turned up. 



84 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

d. Show how organization is applicable to various occupations and 
pursuits ; to daily business ; to the weekly round of duties ; to 
amusements ; to travelling ; to associations of men for all pur- 
poses, as churches, insurance companies, railroads, public libra- 
ries, etc. 

e. The greater comfort and happiness arising from doing work 
methodically, thoroughly, and well. 






MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS FOR ESSAYS. 



1. The Microscope. 

2. The Art of Writing. 

3. Never too Late to Learn. 

4. The Cotton Manufacture. 

5. The Silk Manufacture. 

6. Necessity is the Mother of In- 

vention. 

7. Politeness. 

8. Independence. 

9. Self-denial. 

10. Example is Better than Precept. 

11. Deserve Success, and you will 

Command it. 

12. Recollections of Early Child- 

hood. 

13. Making the Best of Things. 

14. Value of Time. 

15. Industry. 

16. Power of Custom. 

17. Importance of Trifles. 

18. Love of Fame. 

19. Conscience. 



20. Intemperance. 

21. True Greatness. 

22. Truth. 

23. Heroism. 

24. Good and Evil of War. 

25. Reading of History. 

26. Avarice. 

27. Uses of Rain. 

28. Good and Evil of Novel-read 

ing. 

29. Uses of Adversity. 

30. Power of Fashion. 

31. True Happiness. 

32. Extravagance. 

33. Modesty. 

34. Party Spirit, 

35. Division of Labor. 

36. Female Suffrage. 

37. The Cultivation of the Memory. 

38. The Pleasures of Anticipation. 

39. Amusements. 

40. National Costumes. 






PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. §5 

CHAPTER VIII. 
PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 



O many are the poets that are sown 

By nature, men endowed with highest gifts, 

The vision and the faculty divine; 

Yet wanting the accomplishment of verse, 

Which, in the docile season of their youth, 

It was denied them to acquire, through lack 

Of culture, and the inspiring aid of books. — Wordsworth. 



I. Definitions. 

82, Prosody* is that division of rhetoric which treats of 
versification, or the art of composing poetic verse. 

83. Verse is that species of composition in which the 
words are arranged in lines containing a definite number 
and succession of accented and unaccented syllables : as — 

The mel' | -anchol' | -y days' | are come 7 , | the sad' | -dest of 7 1 the year' ; 
Of wail' I -ing winds' | and na' | -ked woods', | and mead' | -ows brown' | 
and sear'. x 

I. Verse (Latin vertere, to turn) i3 so called because when a line is 
completed the writer turns bach and begins another. Verse is 
the natural form assumed by poetry, which is defined by Milton 
as "the simple, sensuous, and passionate utterance of feeling 
and thought." 

II. Verse in its restricted sense signifies a single line of poetry. A 
number of lines forming a division of a poem constitutes a 
stanza : this usually consists of groups of four, six, or eight 
lines.t 

* The term "prosody," from the Greek prosodia (pros, to, and ode, a song), 
literally signifies a song sung to or with an accompanying song, the accent 
accompanying the pronunciation. 

t Sometimes the word u verse" is used for stanza, especially in hymns. 



86 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

84, Yerse is of two kinds — rhyme and blank verse. 






85. Ehyme is that species of verse in which is found 
correspondence of sound in two or more verses, one succeed- 
ing another immediately or at no great distance : thus — 

All are but parts of one harmonious whole 
Whose body nature is, and God, the soul. 

I. Lines ending like those above are called rhymes. Two lines 
rhyming form a couplet; three, a triplet. 

II. To constitute a " perfect rhyme " it is necessary (1) that the 
syllables should be accented ; (2) that the sound of the vowel 
and of the letters following the vowel should be the same ; and 
(3) that the sound of the letters preceding the vowel should be 
different. Thus ring and sing, and love and above, are perfect 
rhymes ; but war and car, love and move, are not perfect. How- 
ever, the number of words in the English language which form 
perfect rhymes is so limited that many slight deviations are 
sanctioned, and are termed alloicalle rhymes. 

III. Rhymes are single : as, plain, grain ; double : as, glo-ry, sto-ry ; 
or triple: as, read-i-ly, stead-i-ly. In double and triple rhymes 
the last syllables are unaccented, being mere appendages to the 
true rhyming sound. 

IV. Sometimes there is a rhyme between half lines : as — 



Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, 
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore. — Foe. 



86. Blank verse consists of unrhymed lines: as — 

Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 

Had in her sober livery all things clad ; 

Silence accompanied ; for beast and bird, 

They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, 

Were slunk, all but the wakeful nightingale ; 

She all night long her amorous descant sung. — Milton. 






PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 87 

II. Rhythm and Poetic Feet. 

L— RHYTHM. 

87, Khythm is the recurrence of stress, or accent, at reg- 
ular intervals of duration. It is from rhythm that English 
verse derives its character. 

L There is an essential difference between English and classical 
versification ; for while English verse depends on accent, Greek 
and Latin verse was constructed principally according to the 
quantity of the syllables, as long or short. 

II. In English an accented syllable is considered long, and an un- 
accented syllable short. But these names are in some degree 
misleading, as a long vowel in a syllable by no means renders 
it an accented syllable, or the reverse. Let it be borne in mind 
that accent at regular intervals forms the basis of English verse, 
and that by a " long " syllable is meant an accented, and by a 
" short " syllable an unaccented syllable. 

88. A foot, or measure, is a portion of a line consisting 
of two or three syllables (and not more), combined accord- 
ing to accent. 

I. Feet in verse are equivalent parts of a line, and correspond to 
oars in musical melody. The accent (or accented part) in a foot 
always consists of a single syllable ; the interval generally con- 
sists of a single syllable intervening between the accents, though 
it may consist of two syllables sounded at the same time as one. 
This is illustrated by the occurrence of feet of two and of three 
syllables in the same line. Thus — 

The vine I still clings I to the moul I -dering wall, 
And at ev | -ery gust | the dead | leaves fall.— Longfdlow. 

Between two accented syllables in English words there may oc* 
cur one or two, but not more than two, unaccented syllables. 

H. A foot is not necessarily a single word. It may consist of—* 
1. A succession of monosyllables : as — 

And ten I long words | oft creep | in one | dull line. 



38 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

2. Parts of polysyllables : as — 

In friend | -ship false, | impla | -cable | in hate. 

III. The division of a verse or line into feet is called scanning. 
A straight line (-) over a syllable shows that it is accented 
(" long ") ; a curved line (~), that it is unaccented (" short"). 
In verse, monosyllables may receive accent, although without it 
in prose: as — 

Come and trip it as you to. 
IV. Two syllables may sometimes be contracted into one : thus — 
Over j many a | quaint and | curious | volume | of for | -gotten | lore. 



.. 



II— POETIC FEET. 

89. The kinds of feet most used in English are four: 
namely, the iambus , the trochee, the anapest, and the dactyl 

1. The iambus— a short syllable and a long : as, proclaim. 

2. The trochee— a long syllable and a short:. as, hopeless. 

3. The anapest— two short syllables and one long : as, colonade. 

4. The dactyl— one long syllable and two short : as, loneliness. 



NOTE. 

In addition to the above-named species of feet, four others are found, though 
rarely : they are, accordingly, called secondary feet. They are : 

The spondee two long, 

The pyrrhic two short, ^ ^ 

The amphibrach first short, second long, third short, ~- w 

The tribrach three short, ~ w ^ 



III. Kinds of Veese. 

I.-CLASSIFICATION. 

90, Verse is named according to two characteristics: 
namely — 

1. According to the hind of foot prevailing in a line. 

2. According to the number of feet contained in a line. 



PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 89 

91 1 From Kind. — A line in which iambuses prevail is 
called an iambic line; that in which trochees prevail, a tro- 
chaic ; that in which anapests, an anajpestic ; and that in 
which dactyls, a dactylic. 

Often in the case of the trochaic and dactylic measures, in which 
the accent falls on the first syllable, the last foot is shortened 
by the omission of the unaccented part. On the other hand^ 
the iambic measure, in which the accent is on the last syllable, 
may be supplemented at the end by an additional unaccented 
syllable forming no part of any new foot. When a syllable is 
wanting, the line is denominated catalectic ; when there is a re- 
dundant syllable, the line is said to be hypermetrical, or a hyper- 
meter (excessive) : thus — 

( Catalectic)— Life is | but an | empty | dream 

(Hypermeter)—&o o | -ver vi | -olent | and o | -ver civ | -U. 

92. From Number.— Monometer is a line of one foot; 
dimeter, of two feet ; trimeter, of three feet ; tetrameter, of 
four feet ; pentameter, of five feet ; hexameter, of six feet ; 
heptameter, of seven feet ; odometer, of eight feet. 

The combination of kind of foot with number of feet gives rise 
to such designations as iambic monometer, iambic dimeter, etc. ; 
trochaic monometer, trochaic dimeter, etc. 



II— Iambic verse. 

93. In iambic verse the accent is placed upon the second 
syllable, the fourth, etc. Of all the measures, the iambic is 
the one the most easily kept up : it is, therefore, in very 
common use, and is peculiarly adapted for long poems. 

Monometer How bright 

Th6 light ! 

Dimeter To me" ] thg rose 

No long | -6r glows. 

Trimeter Thy tooth | is not | so ksen, 

Because I thou art | n5t sSen. 



90 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 






Tetrameter Th&t men | may rise | on step | -ping stones 

Of their | dSad selves 1 15 high | -Sr things. 

Pentameter ThS ser | -vice past | around | thg pi | -ous man, 

With read | -f zeal | gach hOn | -Sst rus | -tic ran. 

Hexameter For thou | art but | of dust | b6 hum | -big and | b& wise, 

Heptameter Thg mel | -anchol | -J days | have come | thS sad | 

-dSst of | thS year. 



NOTES ON THE IAMBIC METRES. 

I. The iambic metres of a single foot (monometer) and two feet (dimeter) are 
too short to be continued through any great number of lines, but as individual 
lines they are met with in stanzas. 

(Trimeter) is this | a fast | to keep 
(Dimeter) thy lar | -der lean 
(Monometer) and clean 
(Trimeter) From fat | -ty meats | and sheep? 

II. The iambic trimeter is rarely used by itself, but is often found in combina- 
tion with tetrameters. These two alternating, and with divers unions of rhymes, 
form the most common of lyrical measures. (In hymns it forms the common 
metre stanza.*) 

Thus fares | it still | in our | decay ; 
And yet | the wis | -er mind 
Mourns less for what age takes away, 
Than what it leaves behind. 

The iambic tetrameter is also largely used uncombined; it is the metre of most 
of Sir Walter Scott's works. 

III. Iambic pentameter is the "heroic measure" of English poetry. In its 
rhymed form it is the measure of Chaucer and Spenser, of Dryden and Pope, 
of Campbell and Byron : thus- 
True ease | in writ | -ing comes | from art, | not chance, 

As those move easiest who have learned to dance. 

In its unrhymed form the iambic pentameter is the stately blank verse of Mil- 
ton and Wordsworth. t 

* In the "short metre" stanza the first, second, and fourth lines contain 
three iambic feet; the third contains four. 

t Four lines of iambic pentameter rhyming alternately form the elegiac 
stanza of English poetry, as in Gray's Elegy. Nine lines, the first eight of 
iambic pentameters, and the ninth an iambic hexameter, form the Spenserian 
stanza, used by Spenser, Thomson, and Byron. 



PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 91 

IV. The iambic hexameter is commonly called the Alexandrine measure ; it 
is used sparingly and in combination with other measures. The iambic hep- 
tameter is now generally divided into alternate lines of four and of three feet, 
forming " common metre." Odometer, also, is usually written as two tetram- 
eters, thus forming u long metre." 

V. Each species of iambic verse may have one additional short syllable, 
which is redundant, thus forming iambic hypermeters. 

The moon | looks 

Confid | -ing. 

No 6th | -er plea | -sure 

With this | can meas | -ure. 

From Green | -land's I | -cy mount | -dins. . • 

She trips | along | with bios | -soms lad | -en. 

Day stars | that ope | your eyes | to twink | -le. 

I think | I will | not go | with you | to hear | the t5asts | 

and speech | -es. 
Auro | -ra rl | -ses o'er | the hills, | by grace | -ful Hours | attend | -Id. 



*1 i + 

2 i + 

3 i + 

4 i + 

5 i v 
6i + 



III.— TROCHAIC VERSE. 

94, In trochaic verse the accent is placed upon the first 
syllable, the third, etc. The trochaic measure has a light, 
tripping movement, and is peculiarly fitted for lively sub- 
jects. 

Monometer Duty 

Draws us. 

Dimeter Hope is ^mnish'd, 

Joys are | vanished. 

Trimeter Go whgre | glory | waits thge. 

Tetrameter Round us | roars the | tempgst | louder. 

Pentameter Low v5 | -luptiious | music | winding | trSmblgd. 

Hexameter Holy-! | holy ! | holy ! | all the | saints & | -dore thge. 

Heptameter Shame thou | those wh5 1 seek my | soul, rS | -ward their 

| mlscMef | double. 

Octometer And th6 | ravgn | nSvgr | flitting, [ still Is | sitting^ j 

still Is | sitting. 

* Meaning, one iambus together with a redundant syllable ; two iambuses 
together with a redundant syllable, etc. 



92 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



NOTES ON THE TROCHAIC METRES. 

I. The most common form of the trochaic metre is the tetrameter, or four 
measure: thus — 

In his | chamber, | weak and | dying, 
Was the | Norman | baron | lying. 

Sometimes the verse is (defective (catalectic), as in Longfellow's Bsalm of Life i 

thus — 

Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers, 
Life is | but an | empty | dream — , 
# For the | soul is | dead that | slumbers, 

And things | are not | what they | seem — . 

Longfellow's Hiawatha is in unrhymed trochaic tetrameters: thus — 

On the | grave-posts | of our | fathers, 
Are no | signs, no | figures | painted; 
Who are | in those | graves we | know not, 
Only | know they | are our | fathers. 

II. The following are examples of trochaic hypermeter: 
Sullen | moans, 
Hollow | groans, 
in the | days of | old, 
Fables | plainly | told. 
Under j -neath this | marble | hearse, 
Lies the | subject | of all | verse. 
Idle | after | dinner, | in his | chair, 
Sat a | farmer | ruddy, | fat, and | fair. 
Fairer, | sweeter | flowers | bloom in | beauty | there. 
Casting | down their | golden | crowns a | -round the | glassy | s6a 
Here a | -bout the | beach 1 1 wander' d, | nourish | -ing a | youth sub ] 

-lime. 



It + 

2 t + 

3 t -f 
4* + 

5 t + 

6 t + 
7t + 



IV— ANAPESTIC VERSE. 

95. In anapestic verse the accent is placed upon the 
third syllable, the sixth, etc. 

Monometer F&r Sway, 

O'er th6 bay. 

Dimeter In my rage | sh&ll b8 seen 

ThS rSvenge | 5f & queen. 



PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 93 

Trimeter I am mon | -&rch 5f all 1 1 survey. 

Tetrameter L5ok aloft | and be firm, | and b£ fear | -18ss 5f heart. 



1 a + 

2a + 



3 a + 



EXAMPLES OF ANAPESTIC HYPERMETERS. 

Strains entranc | -ing. 

He is gone | on the mount | -am, 

He is lost | to the for | -est, 
Like a sum | -mer dried fount | 'din, 

When our need | was the sor | -est. 
On the cold | cheek of death | smiles and ro | -ses are blend | -ing. 



V— DACTYLIC VERSE. 

96, In dactylic verse the accent is placed upon the jvrst 
syllable, the fourth^ etc. 

Monometer Fearfully, 

Tearful^ 

She hasten' d on her way. 

Dimeter.. Land of thS | Pilgrim's pride. 

Trimeter ...Wearing a | -way in his | youthfiilnSss, 

LovelmSss, | beauty, and | truthfulness. 

Tetrameter .....Weary way | wanderer, | languid and | sick St heart. 

Hexameter.. ...This is the^fforgst pri | -meval. But | where are thS | 
hearts that bS | -neath it 
Leaped like trig | roe when hS | hears In thS | 
woodland th6 I voice of the I huntsman ? 



NOTES ON THE DACTYLIC METRES. 

I, Dactylic verse is not often pure (i.e., composed wholly of dactyls): a 
6pondee, or a trochee, or one long syllable generally forms the last foot. 

II. The dactylic hexameter was the heroic verse of Greek and Latin poetry 
(as exemplified in Homer's Iliad and Virgil's JEneid). In it a spondee or a 
dactyl might form any foot except the fifth, which was usually a dactyl, and the 
sixth, which was always a spondee. Longfellow's Evangeline is written in imi- 
tation of the classic hexameter. 



94 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

VL-POETIC PAUSES. 

97. In addition to the pauses required by the sense or 
marked by points, two suspensions of the voice — the final 
and the ccesural — belong to verse. 

98. The final pause is a slight suspension of the voice at 
the end of each line, even when the grammatical sense does 
not require it. 

99. The CSBSUral pause is a slight suspension of the voice 
within the line, and generally, though not always, about the 
middle of it. Long lines may have two or more csesural 
pauses. 

1. Can storied urn 1 1 or animated bust | 

Back | to its mansion 1 1 call the fleeting breath ? 
Can Honor's voice || provoke the silent dust, 
Or flattery || soothe the dull, | cold ear of Death ? — Gray. 

2. No sooner had the Almighty ceased, | than all 
The multitude of angels, | with a shout 

Loud | as from numbers witnout number, | sweet | 
As from blest voices | uttering joy . . . — Milton. 

These pauses add much to the music and modulation of verse, and 
skilful poets aim to construct their lines in such a way that the 
final and csesural pauses shall fall where they are required by 
the meaning or grammatical construction. 



I Y. Species of Poetry. 

100. Poetry may be divided into four principal species — 
the lyric, the epic, the didactic, and the dramatic. 

To classify existing poems is extremely difficult, since some poems 
will not readily take their place in any list, and others may be 
classed in several. However, the four species named are marked 



PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION. 95 

by certain leading peculiarities, and may be regarded as typical 
forms. 

101 1 The lyric poem is an expression of some intense 
feeling, passion, or emotion. It is usually short, and is ex- 
emplified in the song, hymn, and ode. 

I. One peculiarity of lyric poetry is, as the name implies, that it is 
suitable for music, either in its tone of feeling, or more com- 
monly in its quick movement and vivacity. Music, however, is 
an auxiliary only, and is usually dispensed with. 

II. The varieties of the song may be thus enumerated : 

1. The sacred song, or hymn. , 

2. The secular song, of which there are many kinds, as the war 
song, the love song, the sentimental song, the patriotic song, 
the political song, etc. 

3. The ode, which is the loftiest effusion of intense feeling, and 
is not intended to be sung. Milton's Ode on the Nativity is 
pronounced by Hallam the finest in our language. 

III. The elegy may be classed under the lyric species. Elegiac 
poetry is the utterance of feelings in accents of mourning. 
Gray's Elegy and Tennyson's In Memoriam are illustrations. 

102. The epic, in contrast to the lyric (which is the ex- 
pression of emotion), is a poem of narration, in which events, 
real or fictitious— and usually the achievements of some 
hero — are recounted in elevated language. The epic is the 
longest of all poetic compositions. 

The leading forms of epic poetry are : 

1. The grand epic, which has for its subject some great complex 
action : as, Homer's Iliad, Virgil's ^Eneid, Dante's Divine Comedy, 
and Milton's Paradise Lost. 

2. The romance, the narrative poem, and the tale : as Spenser's 
Fairy Queen, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Scott's Lady of the 
Lake, Longfellow's Evangeline. 

3. The historical poem, or metrical history. 

4. The mixed epic : as, Byron's Childe Harold. 

5. The pastoral, idyl, etc. : as, Virgil's Eclogues, Burns's Cotter's 
Saturday Night, Tennyson's Idyls of the King. 



96 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

103. The didactic poem seeks to teach some moral, philo- 
sophical, or literary truth : as, Pope's Essay on Man, Words- 
worth's Excursion. 

Allied to the didactic poem is the satire, or satiric poem, the ob- 
ject of which is to vilify and lash, or it may be also to reform, 
the victim. Butler's Hudibras, Pope's Dunciad, Byron's English 
Bards and Scotch Reviewers, and Lowell's Fable for Critics are 
illustrations. 

104. The dramatic poem is a picture of human life adapt 
ed to representation on the stage. It resembles the epic in 
containing a story, and differs from it in the fact that the 
story is not narrated, but acted. 

The main divisions of the drama are tragedy and comedy. 

I. Tragedy was defined by Aristotle as " the representation of a 
completed action, commanding or illustrious in its character ; the 
language being poetically pleasing; and with the moral effect 
of purifying the passions generally, by means of the two special 
passions — pity and fear." This definition applies best to high 
tragedy, as the Lear of Shakspeare ; the more moderate tragedy, 
while retaining tragic elements, allows happy conclusions. 

II. Comedy is the adaptation of the dramatic form to yield the 
pleasures of the ludicrous, in company with as many other pleas- 
ing effects as are compatible with it. Among the varieties of 
comedy are the genteel comedy, the low comedy, the farce, and the 
travesty, or mock heroic. 

III. The modern drama allows the mixture of tragedy and comedy 
in the same piece. 






APPENDIX. 



A. 

SUMMARY OF PUNCTUATION. 



The Comma. 

I. Three or more words used in a series in the same construction are 
generally set off by commas : as — 

1. The lofty, majestic, snow-capped Himalayas extend across Asia. 

2. California produces wool, wine, and gold. 

II. Two words used in the same construction should not be separated 
by a comma, unless the connective is omitted : as — 

1. The lofty and majestic Himalayas extend across Asia. 

2. California produces wine and wool. 

3. He was a brave, bold man. 

To this there are two exceptions, viz. : 

1. When two words connected by or mean the same thing, they may be 
separated by commas : as — 

The bed, or channel, of the river. 

2. In the case of two words joined by way of contrast, a comma is placed 
ftfter the first : as — 

1. He is poor, but honest. 

2. Though deep, yet clear. 

III. Pairs of words of the same part of speech are separated from 
other pairs in the same series by commas : as — 

Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform and consistent. 

IY. Nouns in apposition, when accompanied by modifying words oi 
phrases, are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas : as — 
Homer, the greatest poet of antiquity, is said to have been blind. 



98 APPENDIX. 

Obs. — A single appositional noun unaccompanied by adjuncts is not 
usually separated by a comma from the noun it explains ; thus we 
write, "The Poet Homer;" "Paul the Apostle." But the reason 
of the omission in these cases seems to be that the appositional 
noun has come to be, in a manner, part of the name. When an 
appositional noun is not closely associated with the name (as, for 
instance, when it is preceded by the indefinite article), the comma 
is used even when the noun is unqualified; thus, "John Heavy- 
side, a blacksmith, was drowned last night." 

V. The noun of address is set off by a comma, or by commas : as — 

1. My son, forget not my law. 

2. Tell me, my friend, all the circumstances. 

VI. In a succession of phrases or clauses, each phrase or clause should 
be set off by commas, unless they are in pairs, connected by conjunc- 
tions: as — 

1. They came on the third day, by the direction of the peasants, to the 

hermit's cell. 

2. "Washington fought in New York and in New Jersey, during the years 

1776 and 1777. 

3. When public bodies are to be addressed on momentous occasions, 

when great interests are at stake and strong passions excited, noth- 
ing is valuable in speech, etc. 

VII. An adjective phrase is generally set off by a comma ; or, if par- 
enthetical, by two commas : as — 

1. Having completed their arrangements for the work of the morrow, 

they retired to snatch a few hours' repose. 

2. The Indian monarch, stunned and bewildered, saw his faithful subjects 

falling around him. 

But if the phrase is restrictive, no comma is required : as- 
A city set on a hill cannot be hid. 

VIII. Adverbial phrases on which any stress is laid, either by trans- 
position or otherwise, and adverbs having the force of phrases (however, 
therefore, indeed, etc.), are generally set off by commas : as — 

1. In spite of all difficulties, they resolved to make the attempt. 

2. They resolved, in spite of all difficulties, to make the attempt. 

3. In truth, I am wearied by his importunities. 

4. I am, in truth, wearied by his importunities. 

5. The signal being given, the fleet weighed anchor. 

IX. Adverbial clauses, especially when they introduce a sentence, are 
generally set off by the comma : as — 

1. While the world lasts, fashion will continue to lead it by the nose. 

2. As my heart was entirely subdued by the captivating strains I had 

heard, I fell down at his feet. 



SUMMARY OF PUNCTUATION. 99 

X. Adjective clauses are set off from the words they modify by com- 
mas, except when they are restrictive : as — 

1. Franklin, who became a great statesman and philosopher, was in youth 

a poor printer's boy. 

2. The friar pointed to the book that he held. 

XI. Parenthetical clauses are to be set off by commas : as — 
The project, it is certain, will succeed. 

XII. The members of a compound sentence, whether full or con- 
tracted, are generally set off by commas, and always when there are 
more than two : as — 

1. On these trees they placed large stones, and then covered the whole 

with damp earth. 

2. The rich and the poor, the high and the low, the old and the young, 

were alike subjected to the vengeance of the conqueror. 

XIII. In contracted compound sentences, the omissions within the 
propositions are indicated by commas : as — 

To err is human ; to forgive, divine. 

XIY. The comma may be used in introducing a quotation not" suffi- 
ciently formal to be introduced by the colon : as — 
Lawrence said, "Don't give up the ship." 

XV. The words as, namely, and to wit, introducing an example, is 
generally followed by a comma: as — 

There are three cases; namely, the nominative, possessive, and objec- 
tive. 

XVI. Yes and no, when followed by a word of address, should be 
set of by the comma : as-^ 

No, sir. 

XVII. The introductory words Voted, Resolved, Ordered, should be 
followed by a comma : as — 

Voted, To appoint Mr. William Rich commissioner. 

The Semicolon. 

The members of a compound sentence, which are themselves sub- 
divided by commas, are separated by the semicolon : as — 

1. When Columbus had landed, he prostrated himself; and, having erected 

a crucifix, he took possession of the country in the name of Spain. 

2. You may quit the field of business, though not the field of danger; 

and though you cannot be safe, you may cease to be ridiculous. 

L.r' 



100 APPENDIX. 



The Colon. 

I. When a compound sentence contains a series of distinct propo- 
sitions, and concludes with a member on which they all depend, that 
member is preceded by a colon : as — 

That the diamond should be made of the same material as coal ; that 
water should be chiefly composed of an inflammable substance ; that 
acids should be almost all formed of different kinds of air ; and that one 
of those acids, whose strength can dissolve almost any of the metals, 
should be made of the self-same ingredients with the common air we 
breathe : these, surely, are things to excite the wonder of any reflect- 
ing mind. 

II. A direct and formal method of introducing a quotation should 
be followed by a colon. By the direct and formal method of intro- 
ducing a quotation is meant the use of such expressions as the follow- 
ing, as follows, these : as — 

Governor Dix made the following statement: "Our finances are in a 
sound condition." 

III. In a compound sentence, when the introductory member is fol- 
lowed by some remark or illustration that is not introduced by a con- 
junction, it is separated by a colon : as — 

No man should be too positive : the wisest are often deceived. 

IV. The connectives to wit, namely, and as, introducing an example, 
are generally preceded by the colon : as — 

There are three cases : namely, the nominative, possessive, and objective. 

V. Yes and no should be followed by the colon when there comes 
after them a statement in continuation or repetition of the answer : as — 

Is it wise to live beyond our means ? No : it is not wise. 

The Period. 

I. A period should close every declarative sentence (affirmative or 
negative), and also most imperative sentences. 

II. A period is used after every abbreviation : as — 
G. Washington. C. O. D. 

III. A period is used after a title or heading, and after an address 
and a signature : as — 

Milton's Paradise Lost. Chapter III. A. T. Stewart, Broadway, New 
York. 



SUMMARY OF PUNCTUATION. 1Q1 



The Interrogation-Point. 

The interrogation-point is placed after every direct question : as — 
Who will be the next President ? 



The Exclamation-Point. 

The exclamation-point is placed after words and sentences that ex- 
press some emotion : as — 

Alas ! How are the mighty fallen ! 

The Apostrophe. — Hyphen. — Caret. 

I. The apostrophe denotes the omission of a letter or letters : as — 

There's = There is ; King's = Kinges (Old English). 

II. The hyphen is often used in separating the parts of compound 
words : as, steam-engine ; also at the end of a line to show that a word 
is not completed. 

III. The caret ( A ) is used to indicate that one or more letters or 
words have been omitted and afterwards interlined. 

The Dash. 

I. The dash is used to mark that what comes after it is a statement 
of the particulars of what has gone before : as — 

We caught four fish — a>trout, a salmon, a mackerel, and a blue-fish ; 

also, to mark that what comes after it is a general statement, or sum- 
ming up of particulars preceding it : as — 

He was witty, learned, industrious, plausible — everything but honest. 

II. Dashes are sometimes used instead of the usual signs of paren- 
thesis, to enclose parenthetical expressions : as — 

The smile of a child— always so ready where there is no distress—Is 
like an opening of the sky. 

III. The dash is used to mark an abrupt or unexpected turn in a 
sentence; as — 

And one — o'er her the myrtle showers 
Its leaves, by soft winds fanned. 



102 APPENDIX. 



The Parenthesis. 

The parenthesis is used to enclose some explanatory word or phrase 
introduced into the middle of a sentence, but entirely independent in 
construction: as — 

1. The vapor of water (steam) upon cooling becomes a liquid, 

2. The bliss of man (could pride that blessing find) 
Is not to act or think beyond mankind. 



B. 

EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 

Allegory (Greek alios, other, and agoreuein, to speak in the assem- 
bly). A narrative representing objects and events that are intended 
to be symbolical of other objects and events having a moral or spiritual 
character. The Pilgrim's Progress, by John Bunyan, is a well-known 
example. In it the spiritual life or progress of the Christian is repre- 
sented in detail by the story of a pilgrim on a journey to a distant 
country, which he reaches after many struggles and difficulties. Other 
examples : Spenser's Fairy Queen, Thomson's Castle of Indolence, Swift's 
Tale of a Tub and Travels of Gulliver. 

Alliteration (Latin ad, to, and littera, a letter). The device of be- 
ginning successive words with the same initial letter : as — 
Up the high kill he heaved a huge round stone. — Pope. 

It formed the distinctive mark of the oldest English poetry. It is 
used occasionally for effect by modern authors ; but its frequent intro- 
duction savors of affectation. 

Ambiguity (Latin ambiguus, from ambigere, to wander about with 
Irresolute mind). A double meaning involved in the construction of a 
sentence : as, " John promised his father never to abandon his friends." 
It is impossible to decide whose friends are meant, whether those of 
John or of his father. 

Analogy (Greek ana, according to, and logos, ratio, proportion). A 
similarity of relationship — not a direct resemblance of things them- 






EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 103 

selves, but of the relations they hold to some third thing. Thus there 
is an analogy between an egg and a seed. Not that the two things 
are alike ; but there is a similarity between the relation which an egg 
bears to the parent bird and to her future nestling, and the relation 
which a seed bears to the old and to the young plant, and this resem- 
blance is an analogy. 

Anticlimax. A climax is the arranging of the terms or particulars 
of a sentence or other portions of discourse, so as to rise in strength to 
the last. An anticlimax is a sentence in which the ideas suddenly be- 
come less dignified at the close. Thus, Hawthorne speaks of a custom 
which he intended to ridicule as " befitting the Christian, the good 
citizen, and the horticulturist." 

Antithesis (Greek anti, against, and tithemi, to place). A contrast 
of words or ideas in successive clauses or sentences. Thus : " In the 
plant the clock is wound up, in the animal it runs down. In the plant 
the atoms are separated, in the animal they recombine." Used judici- 
ously, antithesis is a great beauty, but it may be carried too far. Ma- 
caulay has been blamed for an excessive use of this form of expression. 

Apos'tro-phe (Greek apo, away, and strephein, to turn). A figure 
of language in which the speaker turns aside from the natural course 
of his ideas to address the absent or the dead, as if they were present. 
Thus- 
Glorious Washington, break the long silence of that votive canvas . 
speak, speak, marble lips ; teach us the love of liberty protected by 
law. — Edward Everett^ 

Bur-lesque' (French, from Italian burlare, to ridicule) consists in 
using high-sounding epithets and an apparently dignified style to de- 
scribe unworthy or unimportant objects. Thus — 

Then flashed the lurid lightning from her eyes, 

And screams of horror rend the affrighted skies : 

Not louder shrieks to pitying Heaven are cast, 

When husbands and when lap-dogs breathe their last. — Pope. 

Circumlocution (Latin circum, around, and loqui, to speak). A 
roundabout way of expressing a simple idea. It may be resorted to 
with an object, as in what is called " euphemism," or the mode of soft- 
ening a harsh or too direct and literal expression. But unless justified 
in this way, circumlocution is to be avoided as enfeebling one's style. 



104 APPENDIX. 

Climax (Greek Mimax, a ladder or staircase) consists in so arrang- 
ing the words of a series, or the parts of a sentence, that the least im- 
pressive shall stand first, and the successive words or parts grow in 
strength. Thus — 

It is an outrage to bind a Roman citizen ; to scourge him is an atrocious 
crime ; to put him to death is almost a parricide ; but to crucify him 
— what shall I call it ? — Cicero. 

Comparison (Latin compar, like or equal to another). An extended 
or elaborate simile. Not every statement of mere resemblance consti- 
tutes a simile. When objects are compared in respect of quantity or 
degree, or to see how they differ, there is no simile. Thus, if we should 
say that u Emily is like her mother," this would be no simile. It is only 
when the object of the comparison is to trace internal resemblance that a 
comparison becomes a figure of similitude. Thus — 

Trade, like a restive horse, is not easily managed : where one is carried 
to the end of a successful journey, many are thrown off by the way. 

Diction (Latin dicere, to speak). The element of style that has ref- 
erence to the words employed by a writer or speaker. 

Epigram (Greek epi, upon, and grapTiein, to write). A short, pointed, 
or witty saying, the true sense of which is different from that which 
appears on the surface. It involves a hidden meaning which contra- 
dicts that which is expressed, and the force of epigram lies in the 
pleasant surprise attendant upon the perception of the real meaning. 
It is an epigram to say that "solitude sometimes is best society." 
Taken literally, this is an absurdity ; yet it is a forcible way of saying 
that the pleasures of solitude are greater than those derived from un- 
genial companionship. In a loose way, epigram is applied to any 
witty, pointed saying. 

Eu'phe-mism (Greek eu, well, and phemi, to speak). An allowable 
circumlocution used to soften a harsh or direct way of putting a thing. 
Thus : " Your statement is not quite consistent with truth " is a eu- 
phemism for " You are telling a lie." 

Euphony (Greek eu, and phone, well-sounding). Agreeable effect 
produced on the ear by the sounds of words — their sounds considered 
independently of any meaning the words may have. 



EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 105 

Exor'dium (Latin ex, out of, and ordiri, to weave a web). The in- 
troductory part of an oration. Its object is to render the hearers well- 
disposed, attentive, and open to persuasion. 

Fable. A fictitious story, in itself improbable, generally impossible, 
but nevertheless conveying or illustrating some moral instruction, or 
some opinion. It differs from an allegory, first, in being improbable 
and necessarily fictitious; and, second, in conveying generally one 
simple moral lesson, without exhibiting numerous points of similarity 
as the allegory does. The famous productions known as the Fables 
of iEsop are the best illustration. 

Hexam'eter (Greek hex, six, and metron, a measure). A verse consist- 
ing of six feet or measures. In this species of verse are composed the 
Iliad of Homer and the jffineid of Virgil. The feet of classic verse were 
measured according to quantity, of English verse according to accent. 
The following are hexameter lines : 

Strongly it | bears us a | -long on | swelling and | limitless | billows, 
Nothing be | -fore and | nothing be | -hind but the | sky and the | ocean. 

Humor. A quality easy to feel but hard to define, and of which 
the best realization will be obtained by reading the writings of such 
men as Cervantes {Don Quixote), Sterne, Sydney Smith, Charles Lamb, 
Hood, Irving, and Holmes. It is not the same thing as " wit." 

Hyper 'bo -le (Greek hyperbole, overshooting). An exaggeration of 
the literal truth, so as to make a statement more impressive. The fol- 
lowing contains an example^ of hyberbole : 

A rescued land 
Sent up a shout of victory from the field, 
That rocked her ancient mountains. 

It is much used in poetry and in oratory ; also in common conversa- 
tion. But it should be used sparingly, for, like other spices, if exces- 
sive, it becomes disagreeable. 

Innuen'do (Latin innuere, to give a nod). A form of allusion, in 
which a thing, instead of being plainly stated, is suggested or implied 
merely. It is particularly effective in vituperation. The thing is said, 
and yet said so that the vituperated person cannot lay hold of it in the 
way of refutation or retort. Fuller's saying on Camden the antiquarian 



106 APPENDIX. 

is a witty innuendo : " He had a number of coins of the Roman em- 
perors, and a good many more of the later English Icings " (that is, he was 
rich). 

Irony (Greek eiron, a dissembler) means the contrary of what is ex- 
pressed, there being something in the tone or manner to show the real 
drift of the speaker ; as in Job's address to his friends : " No doubt but 
ye are the people, and wisdom will die with you." It professes belief 
in a statement for the purpose of casting ridicule upon it. It bestows 
praise in such a manner as to convey disapprobation. 

And Brutus is an honorable man ! 

Johnsonian Style. Writings in which long and sonorous terms and 
elaborately balanced periods abound. So called from the character of 
the productions of Dr. Samuel Johnson, an English writer of the last 
century. Macaulay, criticising Johnson's style, says : " When he talked, 
he clothed his wit and his sense in forcible and natural expressions. 
As soon as he took his pen in hand to write for the public, his style 
became systematically vicious. All his books are written in a learned 
language — in a language which nobody hears from his mother or his 
nurse — in a language in which nobody ever quarrels, or drives bar- 
gains, or makes love — in a language in which nobody ever thinks. It 
is clear that Johnson himself did not think in the dialect in which he 
wrote." 

Li'to-tes (Greek litos, plain, simple) is precisely the reverse of hyper- 
bole. It is a form of thought by which, in seeming to lessen, we ac- 
tually increase the force of an expression. Thus when we say, " These 
are not the words of a child," we mean, " These are the words of a wise 
man." " I cannot eulogize such a man," means, perhaps, " I despise 
him." 

Metaphor (Greek meta, beyond, and pherein, to bear). One of the 
figures of speech — an implied comparison ; whereas an expressed com- 
parison is called a simile. Example : " Thy word is a lamp to my feet" 
Mixing metaphors is combining in one sentence two inconsistent meta- 
phors on the same subject : as — 

I bridle in my struggling muse with pain, 

That longs to launch into a nobler strain. — Addison. 



EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 107 

Here Addison makes his muse first a steed to be " bridled in," then a 
ship to be " launched." 

Me-ton'yiny (Greek meta, indicating change, and onoma, a name). A 
figure of speech in which one word is used for another when the things 
denoted have some other relation than that of resemblance. The prin* 
cipal kinds of metonymy are set forth in pages 72, 73. 

Obsolete Words. Such as no longer belong to the current speech. 
They are sometimes effective in poetry, but should not be used in ordi- 
nary prose composition. Their employment is as much out of place as 
would be the wearing the knee-breeches and powdered wigs of our an- 
cestors. " I wot that he gave his artillery unto the knave," meant, in 
the seventeenth century, " I knew that he gave his bow and arrows to 
the attendant;" but w T e should not know that it meant that without 
the use of a glossary. 

Ono-mat-o-poe'ia (Greek onoma, a name, and poiein, to make). The 
name given to that figure of speech in which the very sound of the 
word is an imitation of the meaning of the word — " the sound an echo 
of the sense." 

Like our harsh, northern whistling, grunting guttural, 
Which we're obliged to hiss, and spit, and sputter all. — Byron. 

Par'ody (Greek para, beside, and ode, a song). A composition simi- 
lar in sound to another, and yet conveying an entirely different mean- 
ing. It is always designed to have a ludicrous effect. 

He thought, as he hollowed his narrow bed, 

And punched up his meagre pillow, 
How the foe and the stranger should tread o'er his head, 

As he sped on his way o'er the billow. 

This verse is a parody of a stanza in the " Burial of Sir John Moore," 
beginning 

We thought, as we hollowed his narrow bed, etc. 

Paronoma'sia (Greek para, beside, and onomazein, to name). A pun 
or play on words. 

Pa'thos (Greek pathos, feeling). That which touches the tender 
chord in our nature — a sympathetic pain not wholly without pleasure. 



108 APPENDIX. 



Dickens's description of the death of Little Nell, in the Old Curiosity 
Shop, is a fine instance. The Bible also abounds in pathos. If not 
managed with great skill, this quality is likely to degenerate into 
mawkishness and sentimentality. 

Period (Greek peri, around, and odos, a way). A sentence in which 
the complete sense is suspended until the close. It is contrasted with 
the loose sentence in which the principal predicate is followed by ex- 
planatory phrases or clauses, which may be omitted and still leave the 
sentence a complete sentence. 

Peroration (Latin per, through, and orare, to speak). The conclu- 
sion of an oration. 

Personification. That figure of language by which the lower ani- 
mals and inanimate objects are represented as endowed with the pow- 
ers of human beings, especially with speech: as, "/am glad," answered 
the Bee, " to hear you grant, at least, that i" came honestly by my wings 
and ray voice." 

Perspicuity (Latin per and specere, that which may be seen through, 
transparent). The quality of style by which a writer's meaning is ren- 
dered clear and intelligible. It is opposed to obscurity, ambiguity, 
etc., and is the first requisite of good writing. 

Ple'onasm (Greek pleos, full). An allowable redundancy. "I cried 
to the Lord with my voice." The phrase " with my voice " is redundant, 
since it is implied in the verb cried ; but such redundancies are allow- 
able when deep feeling is expressed. 

Pun (etymology doubtful ; but said to be connected with Anglo- 
Saxon punian, to bruise, or with the word point) has been character- 
istically defined in the following rhyming way : 

A pun's a word that's played upon, 
And has a double sense; 
But when I say a double sense, 
I don't mean double cents. 

As thus : A bat about a room 
Not long ago I knew 
Tojly; he caught a fly, and then 
Flew up the chimney flue. 



><y 



EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 109 

Rhetoric (Greek hrein, to speak). The science and art of expressing 
thought and feeling by language in th3 best possible manner. The 
Greek Aristotle, the oldest writer on the subject, defines it as M the fac- 
ulty of perceiving all the possible means of persuasion on every sub- 
ject." 

Rhyme (Anglo - Saxon ryme, series, number). The correspondence 
of one verse with another in final sound. 

Rhythm (Greek rythmos, order or harmony). In verse, the recurrence 
of stress, or accent, at regular intervals ; in prose, at variable intervals. 

Sarcasm (Greek sarkazein, to tear flesh like dogs, to flay). A keen, 
reproachful, but at the same time witty expression. Thus, one Ward, a 
flippant Parliamentary orator who used to write out and commit to 
memory bombastic speeches, having severely criticised Rogers's poem 
entitled %k Italy," the poet took his revenge in writing these few lines, 
which were soon widely quoted : 

Ward has no heart, they say ; but I deny it : 
He has a heart, and gets his speecftes by it ! 

Satire (Latin satira, a mixture). A production in which follies and 
vices are ridiculed, sometimes humorously and with good-nature, and 
sometimes severely and indignantly, often employing the bitterest sar- 
casm. 

Sim'i-le (Latin similis, like). A figure of language in which one 
thing is expressly compared to another, which it resembles in some 
properties. The comparison is introduced by the words like or as : 

1. Like a tempest down the ridges 
Swept the hurricane of steeL 

2. We all do fade as the leaf 

Sol'ecism (Greek soloikos, speaking incorrectly). A fault of syntax 
— a grammatical blunder. 

Sonnet (Latin sonus, a sound). A poem of fourteen lines of ten sylla- 
bles, with a peculiar arrangement of the rhymes, not, however, always 
strictly observed 



HO APPENDIX. 

Style (Latin stylus, an instrument for writing). The mode of expres- 
sion which one habitually adopts in giving* utterance to his thoughts. 
When we speak of Dickens's style, Addison's style, Victor Hugo's style, 
we have a notion of a certain manner of clothing thought in words, 
and this peculiarity is style. The term comes from the Latin stylus, an 
instrument used by the ancients in writing on tablets covered with 
wax ; and the modern meaning is a transference of sense from the in- 
strument to the way of using it— just as we say that a person " wields 
a forcible pen." 

Synonyms (Greek syn, together, and onoma, a name). Words which 
agree in their general meaning, but differ in their special applications. 
Thus, discovery and invention have in common the idea of presenting 
for the first time ; but " discovery " is applied to making known what 
previously existed; "invention," to constructing what did not pre- 
viously exist. 

Taste. Employed with reference to fine art, this word has two 
meanings: 1. The susceptibility to pleasure from works of art: a per- 
son devoid of this is said to have no taste. 2. The kind of artistic 
excellence that gives the greatest amount of pleasure to cultivated 
minds : thus we may say that a poem displays " good taste," or a 
newspaper article " a want of taste." 

Tau-tol'ogy (Greek tauto, the same, and legein, speech). The repeti- 
tion of the same thought in different words. 

Tropes (Greek trope, turning). Single words used figuratively, or 
not in their literal sense. The figures called synecdoche, metonymy, 
and metaphor are tropes. 

Wit (Anglo-Saxon witan, to know). A combination of ideas, in the 
first place, unexpected ; secondly, ingenious ; and thirdly, consisting in a 
play upon words. (1.) As regards being unexpected — this is implied in 
the terms " flash of wit," " stroke of wit," " sally of wit," etc. (2.) The 
unexpected combination must display ingenuity or skill, such as gives 
something to admire. (3.) It is a mode of ingenuity consisting in a 
play upon words (Frencli jeu de mots.) The epigram is the purest 
form of wit. Next are innuendo and irony, double meaning, etc., 
down to, and sometimes including, the pun. 



INDEX TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



Accent in verse, 87. 

Accuracy, definition of, in use of words, 
57. 

"Aggravate," misuse of, 59. 

Allegory, definition of, 102. 

Alliteration, definition of, 102. 

"Allude," misuse of, 59. 

Ambiguity, definition of, 67, 102. 

Amphibrach, 88. 

Analogy, definition of, 102. 

Analysis, rhetorical, 8. 

Anapest, definition of, 88. 

Anticlimax, explanation of, 103. 

Antithesis, definition of, 103. 

Apostrophe, use of, 101 ; definition of, 
103. 

Arrangement, principles of, in compo- 
sition, 63, 64. 

11 Balance," misuse of, 59. 
Blank verse, definition of, 86. 
Burlesque, definition of, 103. 

Caesural pause, 94. 

"Calculate," misuse of, 59. 

Capital letters, use of, 2. 

Caret, use of, 101. 

Choice of words, requisites in, 57- 
63. 

Circumlocution, examples of, 52-62; 
definition of, 103. 

Clauses, kinds of, 16 ; abridgment of, 
into phrases and words, 44. 

Clearness, nature of, in rhetoric, 66. 

Climax, definition of, 104. 

Colon, use of, 100. 

Combination of sentences, directions 
for, 37. 

Comedy, definition of, 96. 

Comma, use of, 97-99. 

Comparison, definition of, 104. 

Complex sentence, nature of, 16; punc- 
tuation of, 19 ; synthesis of, 20. 

Composition, definition of, 1. 

Compound sentence, nature of, 27; 



contraction in, 29 ; punctuation of, 

30, 31 ; synthesis of, 31-33. 
Conciseness, definition of, 61. 
Continuity in the paragraph, 76. 
Contraction in compound sentences, 

29. 
Conversion of sentences, 35. 
" Couple," misuse of, 59. 
Couplet, definition of, 86. 

Dactyl, definition of, 88. 
Dash, use of the, 101. 
" Demean," misuse of, 59. 
Denying the contrary, 51. 
Diction, definition of, 104. 
Didactic poetry, examples of, 96. 
Dimeter, definition of, 89. 
Direct form of speech, 44, 45. 
Discourse, definition of, 1. 

Elegy, examples of, 95. 

"Emblem," misuse of, 59. 

Epic, definition of, 95; examples of. 
95. 

Epigram, definition of, 104. 

Essay, nature of the, 75 ; examples of 
the, 79-81. 

Euphemism, examples of, 52; defi- 
nition of, 104. 

Euphony, definition of, 104. 

Exclamation, use of, in varying expres* 
sion, 42. 

Exclamation-point, use of, 101. 

Exordium, definition of, 105. 

"Expect," misuse of, 59. 

Expression, variation of, defined, 41; 
by synonyms, 49; by denying the 
contrary, 51 ; by periphrasis, 52 ; by 
recasting sentences, 53. 

Fable, definition of, 105. 
Feet, poetic, kinds of, 88. 
Figures of speech, 72-74. 
Final pause in poetry, 94. 
Foot, definition of, in prosody, 87. 



112 



INDEX TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



Forms of speech, direct, 44, 45; indi- 
rect, 44, 45. 

Hexameter, definition of, 89. 
Highflown words, 60. 
Humor, detinition of, 105. 
Hyperbole, definition of, 105. 
Hyphen, use of, 101. 

Iambus, definition of, 88. 
" Inaugurate," misuse of, 59. 
Indirect form of speech, 44, 45. 
Innuendo, definition of, 105. 
Interrogation, use of, in varying ex- 
pression, 42. 
Interrogation-point, use of, 101. 
Irony, definition of, 106. 
" It," use of, as anticipative subject, 43. 

Language, figures of, 72-74. 
Litotes, definition of, 106. 
Loose sentence, definition of, 70. 
Lyric poetry, definition of, 95. 

11 Married," misuse of, 59. 
Measure, definition of, in poetry, 87. 
Metonymy, definition of, 72. 
Metre, short, nature of, 90. 
Misused words, examples of, 59, 60. 
Monometer, definition of, 89. 

"Name," misuse of, 59. 
Negation, use of, 51. 

Obscurity, definition of, 66. 
Obsolete words, 107. 
Onomatopoeia, definition of, 107. 
Order of words, grammatical and rhe- 
torical, 46. 

Painting of words, 63. 

Paragraph, definition of, 75; qualities 
of good, 75, 76 ; examples of, from 
Addison and Macaulay, 76, 77. 

Parenthesis, when to oe avoided, 65 ; 
use of, 102. 

Parody, nature of, 107. 

Paronomasia, definition of, 107. 

Passive voice, use of, in varying ex- 
pression, 41. 

Pathos, nature of, 107. 

Pauses, poetic, 94; final, 94; caesural, 
94. 

Pentameter, definition of, 89. 

Period, definition of, 70 ; the use of, 
100. 

Periphrasis, examples of, 52. 

Peroration, definition of, 108. 

Personification, definition of, 108. 

Perspicuity, definition of, 108. 



Phraseology, variation of, 49-52. 

Phrases, arrangement of, 11. 

Pleonasm, definition of, 108. 

Poetry, arrangement of words in, 46 j 
Milton's definition of, 85; species of, 
94 ; lyric, definition of, 95 ; epic, defi 
nition of, 95 ; didactic, definition ofj 
95 ; dramatic, definition of, 96 

" Predicated," misuse of, 59. 

Prosody, 85; derivation of term, 85. 

Pun, definition of, 108. 

Punctuation, definition of, 5 ; o*ffice of 
terminal marks in, 2 ; of simple sen- 
tences, 5 ; of complex sentences, 19, 
20 ; of compound sentences, 30, 31 ; 
summary of, 97-102. 

Purity of words, 63. 

Pyrrhic, 88. 

Redundancy, examples of, 61. 

Rhetoric, office of, 1. 

Rhetorical order of words, 46. 

Rhyme, definition of, 86; perfect, con- 
ditions of, 86 ; single, double, triple, 
86. 

Rhythm, definition of, 87. 

Sarcasm, definition of, 109. 

Satire, definition of, 109. 

Saxon synonyms, 49. 

Semicolon, use of, 99, 100. 

Sentence, nature of, 1 ; simple, nature 
of, 3 ; complex, nature of, 16 ; com- 
pound, nature of, 37; synthesis of 
compound, 31-33 ; loose, definition 
of, 76. 

Sentences, conversion of, 35, 36. 

Simile, definition of, 72. 

Simple sentence, nature of, 3 ; punctu- 
ation of, 5 ; synthesis of, 7. 

Simplicity, necessity of, in words for 
good style, 60. 

Solecism, definition of, 109. 

Sonnet, definition of, 109. 

Spondee, 88. 

Strength in style, how effected, 69. 

Style, definition of, 57; derivation of 
term, 57; strength in, how effected, 
69. 

Synecdoche, definition of, 73. 

Synonyms, definition of, 49. 

Synthesis, definition of, 7 ; of complex 
sentence, 20. 

Taste, definition of literary, 110. 
Tautology, examples of, 62 ; definition 

of, 110. 
Terminal marks, use of, 2. 
Theme, definition of. 75; example of, 

77-80. 



INDEX TO ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



113 



"There," use of, as anticipative sub- 
ject, 43. 

Tragedy, Aristotle's definition of, 96. 

Transposition of component parts of 
sentences, 45. 

Tribrach, 88. 

Trochee, definition of, 88. 

Tropes, definition of, 110. 

Unity, definition of, in rhetoric, 64 ; in 

the paragraph, 75. 
Use of words, accuracy in the, 57. 



Variation of expression, methods of, 

41-48. 
Verse, explanation of, 85; derivation 

of term, 85 ; iambic, 89 ; trochaic, 91 ; 

anapestic, 92 ; dactylic, 93. 
Versification, definition of, 85. 

Wit, definition of, 110. 

" Witness," misuse of, 58. 

Words, choice of, 57-63; misused, ex- 
amples of, 59, 60; simplicity of use 
in, 60 ; purity in use of, 63. 



THE END. 



Baldwin's School Readers 

By James Baldwin 

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Spencers' 
Practical Writing 

By PLATT R. SPENCER'S SONS 
Books 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 Per Dozen, 60 Cents 



THIS new system of writing has been devised because 
of the distinct and wide-spread reaction from the 
use of vertical writing in the schools. It is thor- 
oughly up-to-date, embodying all the advantages of the 
old and of the new. Each word can be written by one 
continuous movement of the pen. 

The books teach a plain, practical hand, moderate in 
slant, and free from ornamental curves, shade, and mean- 
ingless lines. The stem letters are long enough to be 
clear and unmistakable. The capitals are about two 
spaces in height. In each of the six numbers composing 
this series there are twenty-four copies, and the space for 
practice is about the same as in other series, although 
the number of lines is greater because the books open on 
the long side. 

The copies begin with words and gradually develop 
into sentences. The letters, both large and small, are 
taught systematically. In the first two books the writing 
is somewhat larger than is customary because it is more 
easily learned by young children, while in the succeeding 
books the writing is rnore nearly the normal size. Books 
One and Two contain many illustrations in outline. 
Each succeeding book presents more work and in greater 
variety. 

The ruling of the books is very simple and will in no 
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directions for their use, accompanies each book. 



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(39) 



ANDERSON'S STUDY 
OF ENGLISH WORDS 

By J. M. ANDERSON 



PRICE, 40 CENTS 



THE PURPOSE of this book is to furnish, in a form 
suitable for school or private study, a summary of the 
most important facts of the English language, with 
especial reference to the growth and change of English 
words. It is based upon such standard authorities as 
Trench, White, Skeat, Whitney, and Emerson, and 
embodies the most recent and authoritative results of 
philological study. 

THE PLAN of the book is simple, and the study is 
made interesting and attractive, as well as instructive. 
The work includes a brief treatment of the general prin- 
ciples of language growth as exemplified in the Indo- 
European languages, and a study of the different ele- 
ments of English, showing the growth of our language 
from its original Germanic, French, Latin, Greek and 
other roots into a new language of greater strength and 
universality than any of its predecessors. 

AS A TEXT-BOOK it is intended as a stepping- 
stone from grammar to rhetoric and the history of the 
English language. It covers the work in English ety- 
mology required by the Regents of the University of 
the State of New York and by leading colleges. Besides 
its use as a fitting book for college entrance examina- 
tions, it will be found useful to students and readers 
in general. 



AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO 

Boston Atlanta Dallas San Francisco 
L37] 






The English Sentence 

By LILLIAN G. KIMBALL 
Instructor in English, State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wisconsin 

Cloth, 12mo, 244 pages. Price, 75 cents 



"The Structure of the English Sentence" is a text- 
book intended for the use of teachers of English, and for 
students in high schools, academies, and normal schools. 
It does not deal with etymology, but is devoted entirely 
to syntax, — the function of words, phrases, and clauses 
in the sentence, — the part th&t the different sentence- 
elements play in the communication of thought. 

The method of analyzing sentences employed in the 
book is simple and practical, and will appeal to both 
teacher and pupil. Phrases — prepositional, infinitive, and 
participial — are treated as abridgments of propositions, 
not as substitutes for them ; and their superiority in 
force, economy, and simplicity to the dependent prop- 
osition is brought out as the determining factor in their 
employment. The infinitive is treated from the point of 
view of its relation to some other word in the sentence, 
some noun, verb, or adjective without which the infinitive 
would not be in the sentence at all. In this way an 
element usually considered difficult is made clear and 
comprehensible. 

It is believed that<this work, in the material which it 
furnishes and in its method of presentation, will fulfill its 
author's aim and purpose to make a text-book which 
should promote and encourage the study of English by 
leading students to understand and appreciate the perfect 
adaptability of the English sentence to the noble burden 
that it bears, — that of communicating thought. 



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Webster's School Dictionaries 

REVISED EDITIONS 



WEBSTER'S SCHOOL DICTIONARIES in their revised form 
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adapted for Primary Schools, Common Schools, High Schools, 
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been thoroughly revised, entirely reset, and made to conform in all 
essential respects to that great standard authority in English — 
Webster's International Dictionary. 

WEBSTER'S PRIMARY SCHOOL DICTIONARY . . $0.48 
Containing over 20,000 words and meanings, with over 400 
illustrations. 

WEBSTER'S COMMON SCHOOL DICTIONARY . . $0.72 
Containing over 25,000 words and meanings, with over 500 
illustrations. 

WEBSTER'S HIGH SCHOOL DICTIONARY . . . $0.98 
Containing about 37,000 words and definitions, and an appendix 
giving a pronouncing vocabulary of Biblical, Classical, Mythologi- 
cal, Historical, and Geographical proper names, with over 800 
illustrations. 

WEBSTER'S ACADEMIC DICTIONARY 

Cloth, $1.50; Indexed, $1.80 
Half Calf, 2.75; Indexed, 8.00 
Abridged directly from the International Dictionary, and giving 
the orthography, pronunciations, definitions, and synonyms of the 
large vocabulary of words in common use, with an appendix con- 
taining various useful tables, with over 800 illustrations. 

SPECIAL EDITIONS 

Webster's Countinghouse Dictionary . Sheep, Indexed, $2.40 

Webster's Condensed Dictionary . Cloth, $1.44; Indexed, 1.75 

The Same . . . Half Calf, 2.75; Indexed, 3.00 

Webster's Handy Dictionary 15 

Webster's Pocket Dictionary. Cloth 57 

The Same. Roan Flexible 69 

The Same. Roan Tucks 78 

The Same. Morocco, Indexed 90 

Webster's Practical Dictionary 80 

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jyfr orton's Geographies 

By ELIZA H. MORTON 

Member of the National Geographic Society 

ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY $0.55 

ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY 1.20 

(With Special State Editions) 

A CLEAR, simple, and logical statement of the 
great known facts of the material world affecting 
man as its principal inhabitant. From their first 
appearance these books have grown rapidly and steadily 
in favor and popularity with teachers throughout the 
country. Their excellence in every respect is indis- 
putable. 

Many original devices are used, in order to present 
graphically the important facts which every child ought 
to know. These embrace diagrams showing the com- 
parative sizes of the grand divisions and of the oceans 
in square miles, sketch maps showing the rainfall of the 
earth and the prevailing winds, ocean currents, iso- 
therms, where the volcanoes are, distribution of vege- 
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distribution of the races and density of population ; and 
graphic representations of the ratio of the important 
productions of the United States to those of the rest 
of the world. . 

Of special importance is the miniature sketch map 
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map of each of the sections of our country, thus pre- 
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BARNES'S NEW HISTORIES 
OF THE UNITED STATES 



BARNES'S ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Told in Biographies by James Baldwin. Cloth, i2mo, 

360 pages. With maps and illustrations .... $0.60 

BARNES'S SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Thoroughly revised and brought down to date. Half 
leather, 8vo, 432 pages. With maps and illustrations . 1.00 



THESE standard and popular histories have been thoroughly 
modernized, both as to appearance and contents. They 
offer present-day views of history and methods of teaching. 
The larger book has been revised in every particular, and the 
smaller one entirely rewritten by that charming and well-known 
writer for children, Dr. James Baldwin. 

The Elementary History tells the story of the country 
in a series of biographies of important men as recommended 
by the Committee of Fifteen. The incidents narrated show 
the manners of the time, and the stories are all intensely inter- 
esting. The numerous illustrations form an important aid to 
the understanding of the text. 

In the School History, while the fascinating literary style 
and the remarkably successful distinctive features of the original 
volume have been retained, greater prominence has been given 
to industrial and social development. References for collat- 
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new maps and pictures introduced. 

Write for illustrated descriptive circular. 



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U«8) 



THE NATURAL 
COURSE IN MUSIC 

By FREDERIC H. RIPLEY and THOMAS TAPPER 



HARMONIC SERIES— Six Books 

This series, the newest of the well-known Natural Music 
Course, is a working course of power-giving quality; it 
affords children an easy mastery over musical symbols; it 
enables them to render appreciatively and agreeably the 
printed page; it promotes a love for music, rather than a 
mere attachment for a few songs ; it develops the auditory 
imagination; and it makes the power to express musical 
thoughts a familiar possession.. From the first lesson to 
the last the child is trained to enjoy pure music, and is 
carefully drilled in each step as it occurs in the books and 
charts. 

NATURAL MUSIC SERIES— Seven Books 

Among the notable characteristics of this series are ade- 
quate prominence given to the element of rhythm, proper 
attention to tone-production, effective treatment of chro- 
matics — an essential but often neglected subject in view 
of its great use in modern music — and abundant dictation 
exercises, which afford a training in self-expression and 
originality, and form an important aid in learning to read 
music. 

SHORT COURSE IN MUSIC— Two Books 

Designed for graded or ungraded schools in which a more 
complete course is either unnecessary or impracticable. 
Particularly adapted to those schools which have no special 
teacher of music. ^ 

ROTE SONG BOOK— (First Steps in Music) 

Contains a carefully prepared series of music lessons for 
beginners, with ample directions and appropriate material 
for use during the first year in school. The songs are 
simple in character and well suited for young children. 

CHARTS— Seven Sets 

These furnish valuable drill exercises supplementary to 
those in the readers, and are intended to be used in con- 
junction with the books. Each new difficulty encountered 
in the latter is first made clear by suitable exercises in the 
charts. 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
(140] 



JUL 25 19G5h 



